[طالب متفائل]

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

التقرير النهائي لمادة مقدمة في اللغويات 321 عند الأستاذ محمود الصبحي

الفصل الرابع

The sounds of language

في صفحة 30
Phonetics
The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics.
هنا مهم تعريف الــ phonetics وهو علم دراسة خصائص أصوات اللغة
وهو الذي محدد باللون الأزرق

Our main interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how
speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’. Other areas of study are acoustic
phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves
in the air, and auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) which deals with
the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.

Voiced and voiceless sounds

هنا فقط نقراء الشرح ونعرف أن مخارج الأصوات هما نوعان
النوع الأول غير صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عند تمدد واتساع الأوتار الصوتيه ويحدث هذا بسس مرور الهواء من الرئتين بدون أن يتعرضة شي مثل حرف s & f

النوع الثاني صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عندما تنكمش الأوتار مع بعضها ويدفعها الهواء الخارج من الرئتين بشكل متكرر وبهذا يحدث اهتزاز متكرر في الأوتار مثل حرف z & v

ويوجد طريقه نضع رأس الأصبع على وسط الحنجره وننطق حرف الــ z نلاحظ ارتجاج بالاحبال الصوتيه
اما في حرب الـــ s نلاحظ لا يوجد اي ارتجاج

بطريقة الأصبع نعرف اي حرف هل هو صوتي ام غير صوتي

In articulatory phonetics, we investigate how speech sounds are produced using
the fairly complex oral equipment we have. We start with the air pushed out by
the lungs up through the trachea (or ‘windpipe’) to the larynx. Inside the larynx
are your vocal cords, which take two basic positions.
1 When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between
them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless.
2 When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly
pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds
produced in this way are described as voiced.
The distinction can be felt physically if you place a fingertip gently on the top
of your ‘Adam’s apple’ (i.e. that part of your larynx you can feel in your neck
below your chin), then produce sounds such as Z-Z-Z-Z or V-V-V-V. Because
these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some vibration. Keeping
your fingertip in the same position, now make the sounds S-S-S-S or F-F-F-F.
Because these are voiceless sounds, there should be no vibration. Another trick
is to put a finger in each ear, not too far, and produce the voiced sounds (e.g.
Z-Z-Z-Z) to hear and feel some vibration, whereas no vibration will be heard
or felt if you make voiceless sounds (e.g. S-S-S-S) in the same way.

Place of articulation
اماكن النطق او مكان خروج الصوت
فقط قراء لنا العنوان دون التفاصيل ولكن نعرف انه لابد لنا معرفه أماكن النطف بالفم او بالتجويف حتى نعرف كيفية نطق الحروف الساكنه
Once the air has passed through the larynx, it comes up and out through the
mouth and/or the nose. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue
and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral
cavity through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds
are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location
inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place.
What we need is a slice of head. If you crack a head right down the middle,
you will be able to see which parts of the oral cavity are crucially involved
in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of most

اما في صفحة 31 يوجد رسمة لإماكن نطق الحروف وركز الاستاذ على كل منطقة وما هي الحروف التي تنطق في كل مكان . نبداء بالمكان الاول وهو

Bilabials

These are sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (= labia).
التعريف مهم وركز عليه الأستاذ
ومعناه : وهي الأصوات التي تخرج وتتكون من الشفتين العلياء والسفلى وهي اربعه حروف p&b&m&w
ونلاحظ بعضها صوتي والأخر غير صوتي مثل p

The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are
represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are
voiced.We can also describe the [w] sound found at the beginning of way, walk
and world as a bilabial.

Labiodentals
These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip.

ايضا مهم التعريف وهي الاصوات التي تخرج بأستخدام الأسنان العليا والشفة السفليه وهما حرفان فقط حرف الــ f وهو غير صوتي وحرف مثل كلمه fat
والحرف الثاني هو حرف الــ v وهو حرف صوتي مثل كلمة vat

The initial
sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save
are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless,
and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound in the word cough, and
the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced
as [f].

صفحة 23 عنوان Dentals

These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.
التعريف ايضا مهم جداً
وهو الأصوات التي تتكون في طرف اللسان خلف الأسنان الاماميه العليا
The
initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are both voiceless dentals. The
symbol used for this sound is [θ], usually referred to as ‘theta’. It is the symbol
you would use for the first and last sounds in the phrase three teeth.
The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð], usually called ‘eth’. This
اي يوجد في بدايه الكلمه مثل thin = ويرمز لها بالرمز θ
وايضا يوجد في اخر الكلمه مثل bath ويرمز لها بالرمز ð
ولكن لا بد لنا من انه يمكن ان تاتي هذه القاعده حتى في وسط الكلمه مثل كلمه father

sound is found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words like
the, there, then and thus. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and
the final sound of bathe.
The term ‘interdentals’ is sometimes used for these consonants when they
are pronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter) the upper and lower teeth.

Alveolars
These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge,
which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth.

يقصد هي الاصوات التي تتكون من الجزء الأمامي من اللسان مع حد اللثه
اما ما في اللون الازرق فهو مهم وركز عليه وهو بمثابه زبدة التعريف

اما حدد الاحرف في هذه القاعده فهي سبعه أحرف وهم t&d&s&z&n&l&r نلاحظ كل هذه الاحرف مكانها واحد
The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for
these sounds are easy to remember – [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s]
are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced.
It may be clear that the final sounds of the words bus and buzz have to be
[s] and [z] respectively, but what about the final sound of the word raise? The
spelling is misleading because the final sound in this word is voiced and so must
be represented by [z]. Notice also that despite the different spelling of knot and
not, both of these words are pronounced with [n] as the initial sound.
Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap
and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write.

Palatals
يقصد بها الحنك
If you feel back behind the alveolar ridge, you should find a hard part in the
roof of your mouth. This is called the hard palate or just the palate. Sounds
which are produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (or alveopalatals).
Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and
child, which are both voiceless. The sh sound is represented as [ʃ] and the ch
sound is represented as [tʃ]. So, the word shoe-brush begins and ends with the
voiceless palatal sound [ʃ] and the word church begins and ends with the other
voiceless palatal sound [tʃ].
One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ ], is not very common
in English, but can be found as the middle consonant sound inwords like treasure
and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced palatal is [d ], which
is the initial sound in words like joke and gem. The word judge and the name
اي يمكن ان تكون الــ ch في البدايه او في النهايه مثل الامثله السابقه


Velars
وهي الأصوات التي تخرج من خلف اللسان مقابل اللهاه وهما حرفان فقط k&g
Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you will find
a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the velum. Sounds produced with
the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a voiceless
velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in kid and
kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold. Despite the variety in spelling,
this [k] sound is both the initial and final sound in the words cook, kick and coke.
The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give
is represented by [g]. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and,
despite the spelling, plague.
The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and
thereby produce another voiced velar which is represented by the symbol [ŋ],
typically referred to as ‘angma’. In written English, this sound is normally
spelled as the two letters ‘ng’. So, the [ŋ] sound is at the end of sing, sang and
despite the spelling, tongue. It occurs twice in the form ringing. Be careful not
to be misled by the spelling of a word like bang – it ends with the [ŋ] sound
only. There is no [g] sound in this word.

Glottals
There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other
parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and
house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in who and whose. This sound
is usually described as a voiceless glottal. The ‘glottis’ is the space between
the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the production of
other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of
the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h].

Charting consonant sounds
هنا لم يقراء هذا النص ولكن في صفحه 34 جدول لكل ما ذكرنا ولكن بشكل جدول وطريقه النطق

Having described in some detail the place of articulation of English consonant
sounds, we can summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart.
Along the top of the chart are the different labels for places of articulation and,
under each, the labels −V (= voiceless) and +V (= voiced). Also included in
this chart, on the left-hand side, is a set of terms used to describe ‘manner of
articulation’ which we will discuss in the

Limitations of the chart
فقط قراء العنوان وترجمة بأنه أسلوب النطق
This chart is far from complete. It contains the majority of consonant sounds
used in the basic deion of English pronunciation. There are, however,
several differences between this basic set of symbols and the much more comprehensive
chart produced by the International Phonetic Association (IPA). The
most obvious difference is in the range of sounds covered.
We would go to an IPA chart for a deion of the sounds of all languages.
It includes, for example, symbols for the velar fricative sound you may have
heard in the German pronunciation of the ch part of Bach or Achtung. It also
includes sounds made with the back of the tongue and the uvula (at the end of
the velum) which represents the r parts of the French pronunciation of rouge
and lettre. Uvular sounds also occur in many native languages of north and
south America. Other non-English sounds such as pharyngeals (produced in the
pharynx) occur in languages such as Arabic. There are many other consonant
sounds in the languages of the world.
Another way in which the chart is incomplete is the single entry covering
r sounds in English. There can be a lot of variation among speakers
in the pronunciation of the initial sound in raw and red, the medial sound
in very, and the final sound in hour and air. Different symbols (e.g. [ɹ],
[]) may be encountered in tranions where the different r sounds are
distinguished.
Finally, in some phonetic deions, there are different symbols for a few
of the sounds represented here. These alternatives are [ˇs] for [ʃ], [ˇz] for [ ], [ˇc]
for [tʃ], [ ] for [d ] and [y] for [j]. For a fuller discussion of the use of these
symbols, see Ladefoged

Manner of articulation
طريقة أخراج الاصوات :
للتفريق بين الاصوات لابد علينا أن نعرف طريقة اخراج او اصدار الاصوات وهي التي توضح المكان الذي يخرج منه الاصوات

So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where
they are articulated. We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how
they are articulated. Such a deion is necessary if we want to be able
to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we
have placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s]
are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their
manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound
is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called
fricatives.

Stops
Of the sounds we have already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all
produced by some form of ‘stopping’ of the airstream (very briefly) then letting
it go abruptly. This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping
effect on the airstream, is called a stop (or a ‘plosive’).Afull deion of
the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop.
In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when
it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced
stops.
التعريف مهم جدا وهو الذي باللون الازرق تعريف الــ Stops



Fricatives
الاصوات الاحتكاكيه
وهي تصدر بسد مجرى الهواء وتركة يندفع من خلال الفتحة الضيقة The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ],
[ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [] involves almost blocking the airstream and having the air
push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of
friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put
your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s]
in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out.
The usual pronunciation of the word fish begins and ends with the voiceless
fricatives [f] and [


Affricates
If you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release
which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [tʃ] and
[d]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap
and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricate [tʃ], and in the second,
a voiced affricate [d].
نلاحظ كيفيه نطق الــjeep & cheap كأنه نطق واحد علماً أنهم يختلفون بالسبيلينق


Nasals
Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from
entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream
is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n], and [ŋ], the sounds
are described as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning,
knitting and name begin and end with nasals.
تسمى بالاصوات الانفيه فهي تصدر عندما نخفض اللهاة ويسمح بمرور الهواء للخروج من خلال الأنف وهي كما حددناها m,n & ŋ

Liquids
مر الأستاذ عليها بشكل سريع جدا
The initial sounds in
led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced.
The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the airstream
flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with
the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed
with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.


Glides
The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur
at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced
with the tongue in motion (or ‘gliding’) to or from the position of a vowel and
are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximants.
The sound [h], as in Hi or hello, is voiceless and can be classified as a glide
because of the way it combines with other sounds. In some deions, it is
treated as a fricative.

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