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بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

نتابع بقيه التقرير النهائي لمادة مقدمة في اللغويات 321
الفصل السادس
Words and word-formation processes
Around 1900, in New Berlin, Ohio, a department-store worker named J. Murray
Spangler invented a device which he called an electric suction sweeper.
This device eventually became very popular and could have been known as a
spangler. People could have been spanglering their floors or they might even
have spanglered their rugs and curtains. The use could have extended to a
type of person who droned on and on (and really sucked), described as spanglerish,
or to a whole style of behavior called spanglerism. However, none of
that happened. Instead, Mr. Spangler sold his new invention to a local businessman
called William H. Hoover, whose Hoover Suction Sweeper Company
produced the first machine called a ‘Hoover’. Not only did the word hoover
(without a capital letter) become as familiar as vacuum cleaner all over the
world, but in Britain, people still talk about hoovering (and not spanglering) their
carpets.
The point of this small tale is that, although we had never heard of Mr.
Spangler before, we really had no difficulty coping with the new words: spangler,
spanglerish, spanglerism, spanglering or spanglered. That is, we can very
quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the
use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from

لم يقراء ولم يشرح هذه الجزئية

في صفحه 53
Etymology
The study of the origin and history of a word is known as its etymology, a term
which, like many of our technical words, comes to us through Latin, but has its
origins in Greek (´etymon ‘original form’ + logia ‘study of’), and is not to be
confused with entomology, also from Greek (´entomon ‘insect’). When we look
closely at the etymologies of less technical words, we soon discover that there
are many different ways in which new words can enter the language.We should
keep in mind that these processes have been at work in the language for some
time and a lot of words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric
misuses of the language. It is difficult now to understand the views expressed
in the early nineteenth century over the ‘tasteless innovation’ of a word like
handbook, or the horror expressed by a London newspaper in 1909 over the
use of the newly coined word aviation. Yet many new words can cause similar
outcries as they come into use today. Rather than act as if the language is being
debased, we might prefer to view the constant evolution of new words and new
uses of old words as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a
language is shaped by the needs of its users. Let’s consider the ways.
اشاد بالتعريف الذي باللون الأزرق Etymology فقط ولم يتطرق لبقية الكلام


Coinage
One of the least common processes ofword formation in English is coinage, that
is, the invention of totally newterms. The most typical sources are invented trade
names for commercial products that become general terms (usually without
capital letters) for any version of that product. Older examples are aspirin,
nylon, vaseline and zipper; more recent examples are kleenex, teflon, tylenol
and xerox. It may be that there is an obscure technical origin (e.g. te(tra)-fl(uor)-
on) for some of these invented terms, but after their first coinage, they tend to
become everyday words in the language.
New words based on the name of a person or a place are called eponyms.
When we talked about a hoover (or even a spangler), we were using an eponym.
Other common eponyms are sandwich (from the eighteenth-century Earl of
Sandwich who first insisted on having his bread and meat together while gambling)
and jeans (from the Italian city of Genoa where the type of cloth was
first made). Some eponyms are technical terms, based on the names of those
who first discovered or invented things, such as fahrenheit (from the German,
Gabriel Fahrenheit), volt (from the Italian, Alessandro Volta) and watt (from
the Scot, James Watt).
* ومعناها ابتكار كلمات جديدة او الاستحداث والصياغة
* مثل : اسبرين كلينكس ونايلون وهكذا

ملاحظة هذا الفصل ركز عليه كثيراً


Borrowing
As Bill Bryson observed in the quotation presented earlier, one of the most
common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled borrowing,
that is, the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout its
history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from other
languages, including croissant (French), dope (Dutch), lilac (Persian), piano
(Italian), pretzel (German), sofa (Arabic), tattoo (Tahitian), tycoon (Japanese),
yogurt (Turkish) and zebra (Bantu).
Other languages, of course, borrowterms from English, as in the Japanese use
of suupaa or suupaamaaketto (‘supermarket’) and taipuraitaa (‘typewriter’),
Hungarians talking about sport, klub and futbal, or the French discussing problems
of le stress, over a glass of le whisky, during le weekend.
A special type of borrowing is described as loan translation or calque.
In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the
borrowing language. Interesting examples are the French termgratte-ciel,which
literally translates as ‘scrape-sky’, the Dutch wolkenkrabber (‘cloud scratcher’)
or the German Wolkenkratzer (‘cloud scraper’), all of which were calques for
the English skyscraper. The English word superman is thought to be a loan
translation of the German U¨ bermensch, and the termloan word itself is believed
to have come from the German Lehnwort. Nowadays, some Spanish speakers
eat perros calientes (literally ‘dogs hot’) or hot dogs. The American concept
of ‘boyfriend’ was a borrowing, with sound modification, into Japanese as
boyifurendo, but as a calque into Chinese as ‘male friend’ or nan pengyu.
* الأستعارة : وهي تعني أخذ المفردات من لغة أخرى مثل الكلمات التي ذكرناها وفي اللغة العربيه كلمة sofa أصلها عربي وتم أستعارتها من قبل اللغة الأنجليزيه والعكس مثل الجمل camle

Compounding
In some of those examples we have just considered, there is a joining of two
separate words to produce a single form. Thus, Lehn and Wort are combined
to produce Lehnwort in German. This combining process, technically known
as compounding, is very common in languages such as German and English,
but much less common in languages such as French and Spanish. Common
English compounds are bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook,
wallpaper, wastebasket and waterbed. All these examples are nouns, but we
can also create compound adjectives (good-looking, low-paid) and compounds
of adjective (fast) plus noun (food) as in a fast-food restaurant or a full-time
job.
This very productive source of new terms has been well documented in
English and German, but can also be found in totally unrelated languages,
such as Hmong (spoken in South-East Asia), which combines hwj (‘pot’) and
kais (‘spout’) to produce hwjkais (‘kettle’). Recent creations are paj (‘flower’)
plus kws (‘corn’) for pajkws (‘popcorn’) and hnab (‘bag’)+rau (‘put’)+ntawv
(‘paper’ or ‘book’) for hnabrauntawv (‘schoolbag’).
*يقصد هنا بالتركيب : تعني تركيب كلمة واحده من كلمتين منفصلتين
* ايضا يمكننا ربط هذه القاعده بالاسماء والصفات


Blending
The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also
present in the process called blending. However, blending is typically accomplished
by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the
other word. In some parts of the USA, there’s a product that is used like gasoline,
but is made from alcohol, so the ‘blended’ word for referring to this product is
gasohol. To talk about the combined effects of smoke and fog, we can use the
word smog. In places where they have a lot of this stuff, they can jokingly make
a distinction between smog, smaze (smoke + haze) and smurk (smoke + murk).
Some other commonly used examples of blending are bit (binary/digit), brunch
(breakfast/lunch), motel (motor/hotel), telecast (television/broadcast) and the
Chunnel (Channel/tunnel), connecting England and France.
The activity of fund-raising on television that feels like a marathon is typically
called a telethon, while infotainment (information/entertainment) and
simulcast (simultaneous/broadcast) are other new blends from life with television.
To describe the mixing of languages, some people talk about Franglais
(French/Anglais) and Spanglish (Spanish/English). In a few blends, we combine
the beginnings of both words, as in terms from information technology,
such as telex (teleprinter/exchange) or modem (modulator/demodulator). There
is also the word fax, but that is not a blend. It’s an example of our next
category.
* يقصد بالخلط : وهو تركيب كلمة جديدة بأخذ بداية الكلمه المنفصلة مع نهاية كلمة اخرى والامثله التي باللون الازرق مثل gasoline


Clipping
The element of reduction that is noticeable in blending is even more apparent
in the process described as clipping. This occurs when a word of more than one
syllable (facsimile) is reduced to a shorter form(fax), usually beginning in casual
speech. The term gasoline is still used, but most people talk about gas, using the
clipped form. Other common examples are ad (advertisement), bra (brassiere),
cab (cabriolet), condo (condominium), fan (fanatic), flu (influenza), perm (permanentwave), phone, plane and pub (public house). English speakers also like
to clip each other’s names, as in Al, Ed, Liz, Mike, Ron, Sam, Sue and Tom.
There must be something about educational environments that encourages
clipping because so many words get reduced, as in chem, exam, gym, lab, math,
phys-ed, poly-sci, prof and typo.
A particular type of reduction, favored in Australian and British English,
produces forms technically known as hypocorisms. In this process, a longer
word is reduced to a single syllable, then -y or -ie is added to the end. This is the
process that results in movie (‘moving pictures’) and telly (‘television’). It has
also produced Aussie (‘Australian’), barbie (‘barbecue’), bookie (‘bookmaker’),
brekky (‘breakfast’) and hankie (‘handkerchief’). You can probably guess what
Chrissy pressies are.
* التقليص وهي ليست مثل الاختصار سوف نذكره لاحقاً وأنما هو اختصار الكلمة بذكر مقطع واحد بشكل مختصر مثل : pub = public house


Backformation
A very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation.
Typically, a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of
another type (usually a verb). A good example of backformation is the process
whereby the noun television first came into use and then the verb televise was
created from it. Other examples of words created by this process are: donate
(from ‘donation’), emote (from ‘emotion’), enthuse (from ‘enthusiasm’), liaise
(from ‘liaison’) and babysit (from ‘babysitter’). Indeed, when we use the verb
backform (Did you know that ‘opt’ was backformed from ‘option’?), we are
using a backformation.
One very regular source of backformed verbs in English is based on the
pattern worker – work. The assumption seems to have been that if there is a
noun ending in -er (or something close in sound), then we can create a verb for
what that noun -er does. Hence, an editor will edit, a sculptor will sculpt and
burglars, peddlers and swindlers will burgle, peddle and swindle.
*الارجاع : وهي تخفيف الكلمه لكن مع تغير نوعها مثل الامثله المذكورة اعلاه


Conversion
A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be
used as a verb (without any reduction), is generally known as conversion. Other
labels for this very common process are ‘category change’ and ‘functional shift’.
A number of nouns such as bottle, butter, chair and vacation have come to be
used, through conversion, as verbs: We bottled the home-brew last night; Have
you buttered the toast?; Someone has to chair the meeting; They’re vacationing
in Florida. These conversions are readily accepted, but some examples, such as
the noun impact being used as a verb, seem to impact some people’s sensibilities
rather negatively.
The conversion process is particularly productive in modern English, with
new uses occurring frequently. The conversion can involve verbs becoming
nouns, with guess, must and spy as the sources of a guess, a must and a spy.
Phrasal verbs (to print out, to take over) also become nouns (a printout, a
takeover). One complex verb combination (want to be) has become a new noun,
as in He isn’t in the group, he’s just a wannabe.
Verbs (see through, stand up) also become adjectives, as in see-through
material or a stand-up comedian. Or adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an empty
room, some crazy ideas and those nasty people, can become the verbs to dirty
and to empty, or the nouns a crazy and the nasty.
Some compound nouns have assumed adjectival or verbal functions, exemplified
by the ball park appearing in a ball-park figure or asking someone
to ball-park an estimate of the cost. Other nouns of this type are carpool,
mastermind, microwave and quarterback, which are all regularly used as verbs.
*التحويل: تعني تغير وظيفة الكلمة عندما يكون هناك اسم يستخدم كفعل ولكن بدون اي أختصارات لها , الامثله موجوده اعلاه



Acronyms
Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words.
These can be forms such as CD (‘compact disk’) or VCR (‘video cassette
recorder’) where the pronunciation consists of saying each separate letter. More
typically, acronyms are pronounced as new single words, as in NATO, NASA or
UNESCO. These examples have kept their capital letters, but many acronyms
simply become everyday terms such as laser (‘light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation’), radar (‘radio detecting and ranging’), scuba (‘selfcontained
underwater breathing apparatus’) and zip (‘zone improvement plan’)
code. You might even hear talk of a snafu, which is reputed to have its origins
in ‘situation normal, all fouled up’, though there is some dispute about the
appropriate f-word in there.
Names for organizations are often designed to have their acronymrepresent an
appropriate term, as in ‘mothers against drunk driving’ (MADD) and ‘women
against rape’ (WAR). Some new acronyms come into general use so quickly
that many speakers do not think of their component meanings. Innovations
such as the ATM (‘automatic teller machine’) and the required PIN (‘personal
identification number’) are regularly used with one of their elements repeated,
as in I sometimes forget my PIN number when I go to the ATM machine.
* الاختصارات وهي مجموعه من الكلمات ونأخذ اول حرف من كل كلمة , مثل الأمثله التي في الاعلى


Derivation
In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is by far the most common wordformation
process to be found in the production of new English words. This
process is called derivation and it is accomplished by means of a large number
of small ‘bits’ of the English language which are not usually given separate
listings in dictionaries. These small ‘bits’ are generally described as affixes.
Some familiar examples are the elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism
and -ness which appear in words like unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful,
careless, boyish, terrorism and sadness.
* بختصار الــ Derivation = affixes
ومعنى الــ affixes = prefixes and suffixes وذكرناها في موضوع مستقل في الفصل السابع صفحة 63 التي في اسفل الصفحه


Prefixes and suffixes
Looking more closely at the preceding group of words, we can see that some
affixes have to be added to the beginning of the word (e.g. un-). These are called
prefixes. Other affixes have to be added to the end of the word (e.g. -ish) and
are called suffixes. All English words formed by this derivational process have
either prefixes or suffixes, or both. Thus, mislead has a prefix, disrespectful has
both a prefix and a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes.


Infixes
There is a third type of affix, not normally used in English, but found in some
other languages. This is called an infix and, as the termsuggests, it is an affix that
is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle
at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating
circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Hallebloodylujah!,
Absogoddamlutely! and Unfuckinbelievable!. In the film Wish You Were Here,
the main character expresses her aggravation (at another character who keeps
trying to contact her) by screaming Tell him I’ve gone to Singabloodypore! The
expletive may even have an infixed element, as in godtripledammit!
We could view these ‘inserted’ forms as a special version of infixing in
English.However, a much better set of examples can be provided from Kamhmu,
a language spoken in South-East Asia.

بختصر كل القاعدتين بالتالي :
الــــ prefixes تأتي الاضافه في بداية الكلمه مثل disrespectful

النوع الثاني : الـــ suffixes تأتي الاضافه في نهايه الكلمه مثل كلمه happiness

النوع الثالث وهي جديده علينا : الــ infixes وتأتي الاضافه في وسط الكلمه ولكن عادتاً لا تأتي في اللغة الانجليزيه مثل كلمه Absogoddamlutely



Multiple processes
لم يتطرق لهذا الموضوع
Although we have concentrated on each of these word-formation processes in
isolation, it is possible to trace the operation of more than one process at work
in the creation of a particular word. For example, the term deli seems to have
become a common American English expression via a process of first borrowing
delicatessen (from German) and then clipping that borrowed form. If
someone says that problems with the project have snowballed, the final word


الفصل التاسع
Syntax
أولاُ نعرف تعريفه لاني كتبتة في الدورة
Syntax = is the study of structure and ordering of components within a sentence
النحو syntax : هو علم دراسة تركيب العناصر المكونه للجملة

صفحه 86 طلب منا قرائتها والتعريف الذي ذكرناه مهم جداُ

اما في صفحه 87
Syntactic structures
A generative grammar defines the syntactic structures of a language. The grammar
will generate all the well-formed syntactic structures (e.g. sentences) of the
language and will not generate any ill-formed structures. This has been called
the ‘all and only’ criterion, that is, all the grammatical sentences and only the
grammatical sentences will be produced.

* يعطي خمس قواعد ومنها نستطيع أن نكون الالف من الجمل
* كتب لنا مثال صح ام خطأ
Grammar will generate all ill-formed sentence . T or Fطبعاُ خطأ الجواب الصحيح will formed
المثال هذا مهم جدا
The grammar will have a finite (i.e. limited) number of rules, but will be capable
of generating an infinite number of well-formed structures. In this way, the
productivity of language (i.e. our ability to create totally novel yet grammatically
accurate sentences) would be captured within the grammar.
The grammar should also be capable of revealing the basis of two other
phenomena: first, how some superficially different sentences are closely related
and, second, how some superficially similar sentences are in fact different.

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