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بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

تابع تقرير لمقدمة اللغويات 321
الفصل التاسع صفحة 87
Deep and surface structure
Two superficially different sentences are shown in these examples.
Charlie broke the window.
The window was broken by Charlie.
In traditional grammar, the first is called an active sentence, focusing on what
Charlie did, and the second is a passive sentence, focusing on The window
and what happened to it. The distinction between them is a difference in their
surface structure, that is, the different syntactic forms they have as individual
English sentences. However, this superficial difference in form disguises the
fact that the two sentences are very closely related, even identical, at some less
superficial level.

This other ‘underlying’ level, where the basic components (noun phrase +
verb + noun phrase) shared by the two sentences can be represented, is called
their deep structure. The deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization
in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
That same deep structure can be the source of many other surface
structures such as It was Charlie who broke the window and Was the window
broken by Charlie? In short, the grammar must be capable of showing
how a single underlying abstract representation can become different surface
structures.

*التركيب العميق والتركيب السطحي :
أمثله جابها في الدورة
Ali hit aman with a hat. هذا مثال على التركيب العميق Deep structure

*Ali hit aman which wearing a hat
*Ali hit aman using ahat

الجملتين هما Tow surface structure يعني طلع من المثال الاول
* يقصد بالتركيب العميق والتركيب السطحي الاختلاف الموجود في الشكل النحوي للجمله



Recursion
التكرار
The rules of the grammar will also need the crucial property of recursion.
Recursive (‘repeatable any number of times’) rules have the capacity to be
applied more than once in generating a structure. For example, we can have
one prepositional phrase describing location (on the table) in the sentence The
gun was on the table. We can also repeat this type of phrase, using different
words (near the window), for as long as the sentence still makes sense (in the
bedroom). So, in order to generate a sentence such as The gun was on the table
near the window in the bedroom, we must be able to repeat the rule that creates
a prepositional phrase over and over again.
يقصد في الاخير تكرار حروف الجر اكثر من مره في الجمله
في صفحه 89
We must also be able to put sentences inside other sentences. For example,
when we produce a sentence such as Cathy knew that Mary helped George, we
do so with the sentence Mary helped George inside it. And those two sentences
can be generated inside another sentence such as John believed that Cathy knew
that Mary helped George. In principle, there is no end to the recursion that
would produce ever longer versions of complex sentences with this structure.
Basically, the grammar will have to capture the fact that a sentence can have
another sentence inside it or that a phrase can be repeated as often as required.
We should note that recursion of this type is not only a feature of grammar, but
can also be an essential part of a theory of cosmic structure, as in the role of
turtles in one little old lady’s view of the universe.



Symbols used in syntactic deion
هذا القاعده مهمه جدا وسوف اوضحها قدر المستطاع
Having
reviewed some important concepts in the study of syntax, we can
now look at some of the ways in which syntactic analysis is presented. We
have already encountered some symbols in chapter 8 as abbreviations for
syntactic categories. Examples are ‘S’ (= sentence), ‘NP’ (= noun phrase),
‘N’ (= noun), ‘Art’ (= article), and so on. There are three more symbols that
are commonly used in syntactic deion.
The first is in the form of an arrow→. It can be interpreted as ‘consists of’
or ‘rewrites as’. It is typically used in the following type of rule:
NP→Art NThis is simply a shorthand way of saying that a noun phrase (NP) such as the
dog consists of or rewrites as (→) an article (Art) the and a noun (N) dog.
The second symbol is a pair of round brackets ( ). Whatever occurs inside
these round brackets will be treated as an optional constituent. For example, we
can describe an object as the dog or the small dog. We can say that both the dog
and the small dog are examples of the category noun phrase (NP). When we
want to use a noun phrase in English, we can include an adjective (Adj) such
as small, but we don’t have to. It’s an optional constituent in a grammatically
well-formed noun phrase. We can represent this observation in the following
type of rule:
NP→Art (Adj) N
This shorthand notation expresses the idea that a noun phrase rewrites as (→)
an article (Art) and a noun (N), with the option of including an adjective (Adj)
in a specific position between them. We use the round brackets to indicate that
the adjective is optional. So, we can use this notation to generate the dog, the
small dog, a cat, a big cat, the book, a boring book and an endless number of
other similar noun phrases.
The third symbol is in the form of curly brackets { }.These indicate that only
one of the elements enclosed within the curly brackets must be selected.We use
في صفحة90
these types of brackets when we want to indicate that there is a choice from two
or more constituents. For example, we saw in chapter 8 that a noun phrase can
consist of an expression such as the dog (article plus noun), or it (pronoun), or
Cathy (proper noun). Using the abbreviations ‘Pro’ (for pronoun) and ‘PN’ (for
proper noun), we can try to capture this observation about English with three
separate rules, as shown on the left. However, it is more succinct to write one
rule, as shown in the middle or on the right, using curly brackets and including
exactly the same information.

S sentence
NP noun phrase
PN proper noun
N noun
VP verb phrase
Adv adverb
V verb
Adj adjective
Prep preposition
Art article
Pro pronoun
PP prepositional phrase

* واحده من هذه العناصر لابد ان توجد في الجملة الاسمية
*لا بد لنا من معرفه هذه الرموز لكي نحلل الجمله ونرسمها بالرسم الشجري

* ‘ungrammatical sentence’
→ ‘consists of’ or ‘rewrites as’
() ‘optional constituent’
{} ‘one and only one of these constituents must be selected’


Tree diagrams
الرسم الشجري الرسومات مهمه التي في صفحه 90 وفي صفحه 91
In chapter 8,we looked atways to describe the structure of sentences by first concentrating
on the linear sequence of constituents, then noting how our diagrams
could capture some aspects of the hierarchical organization of those structures.To create a more explicit representation of the hierarchical organization of one
structure, shown in a labeled and bracketed format on the left below, we can use
a tree diagram, shown on the right below.


صفحه 91 الرسمه مهمه جدا وعطانا مثال ونقوم بعمل الرسم الشجري
والجملة هي : The man hit the boy
لصعوبه عمل شكل الرسمه في هذه الصفحه سوف اترككم بعملها ومن ثم سوف ادرجها في وقت لاحق



Phrase structure rules
We can think of this tree diagram format in two different ways. In one way,
we can simply treat it as a static representation of the structure of the sentence
shown at the bottom of the diagram. We could then propose that, for every
single sentence in English, a tree diagram of this type could be drawn. An
alternative view is to treat the tree diagram as a ‘dynamic’ format, in the sense
that it represents a way of generating not only that one sentence, but a very large
number of other sentences with similar structures.
This second approach is very appealing because itwould enable us to generate
a very large number of sentences with what look like a very small number of
rules. These rules are called phrase structure rules. As the name suggests,
these rules state that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of
one or more constituents in a particular order.We can use phrase structure rules
to present the information of the tree diagram in another format, as we saw

when we introduced some new symbols earlier. That is, the information shown
in the tree diagram on the left can be expressed in the phrase structure rule on
the right.


According to this rule, “a noun phrase rewrites as an article followed by a
noun”.
The first rule in the following set of simple (and necessarily incomplete)
phrase structure rules states that “a sentence rewrites as a noun phrase and a
verb phrase”. The second rule states that “a noun phrase rewrites as either an
article, an optional adjective and a noun or a pronoun or a proper noun”

هنا لابد منا أن نعرف ان حرف الــ S = يطلع منها NP & VP
الـــ NP يطلع منها →{Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}
والــ VP يطلع منها →V NP (PP) (Adv)
والــ PP يطلع منها →Prep NP




Lexical rules
Phrase structure rules generate structures. In order to turn those structures into
recognizable English,we also need lexical rules that specifywhichwords can be
used when we rewrite constituents such as N. The first rule in the following set
states that “a proper noun rewrites as Mary or George”. (It’s a very small world.)

هذه امثله لكل الــ optional حتى نعرف ما ذا يعني الاسم والصفحه وحروف الجر وهكذا حتى تساعدنا على الرسم الشجري

PN →{Mary, George}

V →{followed, helped, saw}
N →{girl, dog, boy}

Adj →{small, crazy}

Art→{a, the}
Prep→{near, with}

Pro→{it, you}
Adv →{recently, yesterday}

يوجد جمل في الاسفل لم يتطرق لها الاستاذ ولكن افضل ان نقوم برسمة كل جملة منها للتدريب ومنها قد تكون موضع اسئله
وهي 10 جمل

1 The girl followed the boy.
2 A boy helped the dog.
3 You saw it yesterday.
4 Mary helped George recently.
5 George saw a dog.
6A small dog followed Mary.
7The small boy saw George with a crazy dog recently.
8 You it saw.
9 Mary helped boy.
10 Followed the dog.

يتبع