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بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

التقرير النهائي لمادة مقدمة في اللغويات 321
الفصل التاسع صفحة 93الرسمه التي في اعلا الصفحه مهمه وهي تعتبر جملة طويله ولكن هي جمله واحده فقط
ما سوف ندرسه في القاعدة التاليه هي جملة تتكون من عدة جمل بداخلها كيف نرسمها بطريقه الرسم الشجري

Back to recursion

The simple phrase structure rules listed earlier have no recursive elements. Each
time we start to create an S, we only create a single S (sentence structure). We
actually need to be able to include sentence structures within other sentence
structures. In traditional grammar, these ‘sentence structures’ were described
as ‘clauses’.We know, for example, that Mary helped George is a sentence.We
can put this sentence inside another sentence beginning Cathy knew that [Mary
helped George]. And, being tediously recursive, we can put this sentence inside
another sentence beginning John believed that [Cathy knew that [Mary helped
George]].
In these sentences, two new proper nouns and two new verbs have been used.
We have to expand our earlier set of lexical rules to include PN → {Cathy,
John} and V→{believed, knew}. After verbs such as believe and know, as in
these examples, the word that introduces a ‘complement phrase’.
Mary helped George.
Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.

لاحظو هنا ثلاث جمل بالقاعدة التاليه نعرف طريقه دمجهم في بعض لكي نقوم بالرسم الشجري الخاص بها
Complement phrases

The word that, as used in these examples, is called a complementizer (C). The
role of that as a complementizer is to introduce a complement phrase (CP).
For example, in the second sentence (Cathy knew . . .), we can identify one
CP which contains that plus Mary helped George. We already know that Mary

helped George is a sentence (S). So, we are now in a position to define a CP in
the following way: “a complement phrase rewrites as a complementizer and a
sentence”, or CP→C S.
We can also see from the same sentence that the complement phrase (CP)
comes after a verb (V) knew. This means that we are using the CP as part of a
verb phrase (VP), as in knewthat Mary helped George. So, there must be another
rule that says: “a verb phrase rewrites as a verb and complement phrase”, or
VP→V CP.
If we now look at these two new rules in conjunction with an earlier rule, we
can see how recursion is built into the grammar.
S →NP VP
VP →V CP
CP →C S
We begin with S on the left and, as we rewrite symbols, we eventually have S
on the right, allowing us to go back to the beginning and go through the set of
rules again (and again). This means that we can, in principle, use these rules to
create an endless ‘sentence’ containing other ‘sentences’. In practice, it allows
us to draw the following tree diagram and provide a clear representation of the
syntactic structure of this one fairly complex sentence.

* لاحظو في الرسمه الشجريه التي في اسفل صفحه 94
لاحظو CP والثانيه CP
هذه لعمل فصل بين الجمل في الجمله المطوله
وتلاحظو that = c



Transformational rules
The phrase structure rules (without the lexical rules) that we have described can
be treated as a representation of the ‘underlying’ or deep structures of sentences
in English. One feature of these underlying structures is that they will always
generate sentences with a fixed word order. For example, if we follow the rules
illustrated earlier, adverbs will always come at the end of their sentences. That
would seem to work for the first sentence below, but how would we get the
second sentence?
Mary saw George recently.
Recently Mary saw George.
We can think of the adverb recently as having been ‘moved’ to the beginning
of the second sentence. In order to make this possible in the grammar, we need
other rules that will change or move constituents in the structures derived from
the phrase structure rules. These are called transformational rules. Essentially
what they do is take a specific part of structure, like a branch of the tree, away
from one part of the tree diagram and attach it to a different part. As shown
below, we use the symbol ⇒ to indicate that a transformational rule is being
used to derive a new structure from the basic structure.

الرسومات مهمه في هذه الصفحه
For this particular rule, we would have to specify which type of constituent can
be moved in this way, as well as from where and to where.
We also use a transformational rule to derive English question structures of
the type illustrated in the second sentence below.
You will help Cathy.
Will you help Cathy?
In order to describe this process, we need to expand our phrase structure rules
to include an auxiliary verb (Aux) such as will as part of the sentence. This
new rule is written as: S → NP Aux VP. Although there are other forms of
auxiliary verbs in English, a rudimentary lexical rule might be as follows:
Aux→{can, should, will}.
With these components, we can specify the transformational rule that creates
this basic type of English question as: NP Aux VP ⇒ Aux NP VP. We can

والرسمه على الــ Aux في صفحه 96 رسمتان ويبين أن will تأتي بالبدايه وتأتي بثاني كلمه من الجملة , وبالرسم اذا أتت بالاولى نكتب الــ Aux بالأول والعكس


الفصل العاشر

Semantics
اولا التعريف مهم جداً
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In
semantic analysis, there is always an attempt to focus on what the words conventionally
mean, rather than onwhat an individual speaker (like George Carlin)
might want them to mean on a particular occasion. This technical approach is
concerned with objective or general meaning and avoids trying to account for
subjective or local meaning. Linguistic semantics deals with the conventional
meaning conveyed by the use of words, phrases and sentences of a language.

Conceptual and associative meaning
When we investigate the meaning of words in a language,
يدرس بشكل أوسع للمعنى we are normally
interested in characterizing the conceptual meaning and less concerned with
the associative meaning of the words. Conceptual meaning covers those basic,
essential components of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word.
Some of the basic components of a word like needle in English might include
‘thin, sharp, steel instrument’. These components would be part of the conceptual
meaning of needle. However, different people might have different associations
or connotations attached to a word like needle. They might associate it
with ‘pain’, or ‘illness’, or ‘blood’, or ‘drugs’, or ‘thread’, or ‘knitting’, or ‘hardto find’, and these associations may differ from one person to the next. These
types of associations are not treated as part of the word’s conceptual meaning.
In a similar way, some people may associate the expression low-calorie, when
used to describe a product, with ‘healthy’, but this is not part of the basic conceptual
meaning of the expression (i.e. ‘producing a small amount of heat or
energy’). Poets, novelists, advertisers and lovers may be very interested in using
words in such a way that certain associative meanings are evoked and literary
critics often write about this aspect of language use. In this chapter, however,
we will be more concerned with trying to describe what constitutes conceptual
meaning.



Semantic features
One obvious way in which the study of basic conceptual meaning might be
helpful in the study of language would be as a means of accounting for the
‘oddness’ we experience when we read sentences such as the following:
The hamburger ate the boy.
The table listens to the radio.
The horse is reading the newspaper.
We should first note that the معناها شذوذ oddness of these sentences does not derive from
their syntactic structure. According to the basic syntactic rules for forming
English sentences (as presented in chapter 9), we have well-formed structures.

NP= The hamburger
V = ate
NP = the boy


This sentence is syntactically good, but semantically odd. Since the sentence
The boy ate the hamburger is perfectly acceptable, we may be able to identify
the source of the problem. The components of the conceptual meaning of the
noun hamburger must be significantly different from those of the noun boy,
thereby preventing one, and not the other, from being used as the subject of the
verb ate. The kind of noun that can be the subject of the verb ate must denote
an entity that is capable of ‘eating’. The noun hamburger does not have this
property and the noun boy does.
We can make this observation more generally applicable by trying to determine
the crucial element or feature of meaning that any noun must have in
order to be used as the subject of the verb ate. Such an element may be as
general as ‘animate being’. We can then use this idea to describe part of the
meaning of words as having either plus (+) or minus (−) that particular feature.So, the feature that the noun boy has is ‘+animate’ (= denotes an animate
being) and the feature that the noun hamburger has is ‘−animate’ (= does
not denote an animate being).
This simple example is an illustration of a procedure for analyzing meaning in
terms of semantic features. Features such as ‘+animate,−animate’; ‘+human,
−human’, ‘+female, −female’, for example, can be treated as the basic elements
involved in differentiating the meaning of each word in a language from
every other word. If we had to provide the crucial distinguishing features of the
meanings of a set of English words such as table, horse, boy, man, girl, woman,
we could begin with the following diagram.

الجدول الذي في الاسفل سهل جداً
نأخذ table
هل فيها حياة animate طبعاً لا تأخذ سالب -
هل هي human بشري يعني عاقل ويدرك ما حول طبعاً لا تأخذ سالب -
هل هي female أنثى طبعاً لا تأخذ سالب -
هل هي adult بالغه أي سن البلوغ طبعاً لا تأخذ -

* وهكذا في بقية الجدول



Semantic roles
Instead of thinking of words as ‘containers’ of meaning, we can look at the
‘roles’ they fulfill within the situation described by a sentence. If the situation
is a simple event, as in The boy kicked the ball, then the verb describes an action
(kick). The noun phrases in the sentence describe the roles of entities, such as
people and things, involved in the action. We can identify a small number of
semantic roles (also called ‘thematic roles’) for these noun phrases.

* قواعد الـــ Semantic roles ثلاثه الاولى
Agent and theme
In our example sentence, one role is taken by the noun phrase The boy as ‘the
entity that performs the action’, technically known as the agent. Another role
is taken by the ball as ‘the entity that is involved in or affected by the action’,
which is called the theme (or sometimes the ‘patient’). The theme can also be an
entity (The ball) that is simply being described (i.e. not performing an action),
as in The ball was red.
Agents and themes are the most common semantic roles. Although agents
are typically human (The boy), they can also be non-human entities that cause
actions, as in noun phrases denoting a natural force (The wind), a machine
(A car), or a creature (The dog), all of which affect the ball as theme.

حتى نفرق بين الــ Agent and theme
بالمثال هذا سوف نعرف الفرق بينهم
The boy kicked the ball
الــ Agent في هذا الجمله هو boy النه هو من قام بالفعل
اما الــ theme في هذه الجمله هو ball لانه هو المفعول به او الشي الذي يريد ان يفعل به الحدث


النوع الثاني هو Instrument and experiencer
If an agent uses another entity in order to perform an action, that other entity
fills the role of instrument. In the sentences The boy cut the rope with an old
razor and He drew the picture with a crayon, the noun phrases an old razor and
a crayon are being used in the semantic role of instrument.
When a noun phrase is used to designate an entity as the person who has a
feeling, perception or state, it fills the semantic role of experiencer. If we see,
know or enjoy something, we’re not really performing an action (hence we are
not agents).We are in the role of experiencer. In the sentence The boy feels sad,
the experiencer (The boy) is the only semantic role. In the question, Did you
hear that noise?, the experiencer is you and the theme is that noise.

* دعونا نأخذ هذا المثال لكي تتضح القاعدة أكثرThe boy cut the rope with an old razor في هذا المثال الــ Instrument في الجمله هي with an old razor هي الأداة

اما المقصود بالــ experiencer هي المجرب: حركه فعلية او الشخص الذي شعر بما حدث

النوع الثالث من القواعد وهي Location, source and goal
A number of other semantic roles designate where an entity is in the deion
of an event. Where an entity is (on the table, in the room) fills the role of location.
Where the entity moves from is the source (from Chicago) and where it moves
to is the goal (to New Orleans), as in We drove from Chicago to New Orleans.
When we talk about transferring money from savings to checking, the source is
savings and the goal is checking.
All these semantic roles are illustrated in the following scenario. Note that a
single entity (e.g. George) can appear in several different semantic roles.

*واضحه في الامثله في الاعلي وهي :
location = on the table, in the room
source = from Chicago
goal = to New york


الى هنا هذا ما اخذناه عند الأستاذ محمود الصبحي وسوف أذكر ما تم مناقشته في أخر محاضره وملعومات ذات اهميه وسوف اذكرها على شكل نقاط :

*مثل ما ذكرت في أول التقرير أنه بداء في الفصل الأول وانهيناه في محاضرة واحد ونحن نعرف أن في الدورة فقط قرابة 6 ماحضرات فقط خلصنا في المحاضره الأولى الفصل الأول , واذا في كل فصل محاضره فنحتاج الى عشرون محاضره يعني تغطية المنهج مستحيله ,

* بعد ماتم ذكره ناقشنا الأستاذ في هذا الناحيه وقال سوف نذهب للفصول التي تحتاج للفهم !
*جيمع المنهج معانا لم يحذف أي فصل من الفصول .
* ما تم ذكره مني في تقاريري فهو ما تم دراسته في الدورة .
*اللون الاحمر في تقاريري هو العنواوين الرئيسية
*اللون الأزرق الكلام الذي ركز عليه الأستاذ وطلب منا قرائه ما لم يتم ذكره في المحاضره في المنزل لكي يختصر الوقت
*بعض الزملاء ناقشوة بالنسبة لعدد الأسئله مقارنة بالوقت ؟ لإن في السنه الماضيه ضعو 100 سؤال بساعه ونصف فأكثر الطلاب لم يحلو الا 60 %
*طلبناه بأن يكون عدد الأسئله أقل من العام او يعطوننا وقت كافي ! فقال سوف نعرض هذه الاشكاليه مع الزملاء ويكون خير لم يوعدنا بشي !
*ذكر في أول المحاضره أن في كل فصل سوف يأتي ثلاثه أسئله على حد قوله
*على حد قوله المنهج طويل جداً فقرؤ الأشياء المهمه لانه يوجد أشياء من أن تقرائها تعرف انها حشو
*التعاريف مهمه جداً وايضا يوجد في نهاية الكتابGlossary كل التعاريف مطالبون بها
*يوجد تعاريف من أن تشاهدها ليست مهمه
*سئلته وقلت هل التعاريف تأتي بالمصطلح ونعرفه ام تأتي بالتعريف ونضع مصطلحه وقال كل الحالتين جائزتين
*سئلته وقلت يوجد بعض الاختلافات البسيطه بين التعاريف التي تكون في كل فصل وبين التعاريف التي تكون في اخر الكتاب وسئلته من أين تأتي بها ؟ وقال من كل الحالتين امكانيه أن اتي بها
*سئلناه ماهي الفصول المهمه قال كثير وذكر منها الفصل الاول والفصل السابع و التاسع والعاشر
* سئلته لقد داهمنا الوقت بنتهاء الدورة فأذا معانا وقت ما هي الفصول التي لابد من فهما ؟ وذكر الفصل الثاني عشر اما الربع عشر والخامس عشر فهما متشابهان وذكر الفصل التاسع عشر والعشرون
* ليس ما لم يتم ذكره انه محذوف او غير مهم , كل المنهج معنا
*ذكر عن الفصل الأول ما هو الجزء من رأس الأنسان المسؤال عن اكتساب اللغة وماهي النظريات

وفي الختام الشكر لله والفضل لله سبحانه فأن وفقت فمن الله وأن أخطأت فمني ومن الشيطان
التقرير قابل للخطأ الاملائي او في الشرح او في النقل , هذا ما أستطعت تقديمة أهداء لاخواني وأخواتي طلاب وطالبات جامعه الملك عبد العزيز

وأشكر كل من سئل وكل من دخل وقراء وكل من أستفاد وايضا أشكر كل من دعاء لي علني ام في ظهر الغيب
هذا وصلى الله على نبينا محمد وعلى آله وصحبه أجمعين

وهذا العمل خالص لوجه الله وأتمنى من أي شخص يقراء هذا التقرير أن يدعي لأختي بالشفاء العاجل "‏اللهم رب الناس، أذهب البأس، واشف، أنت الشافي لا شفاء إلا شفاؤك، شفاءً لا يغادر سقماً” اللهم أمين يارب

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