براكتكم 1

[سماء جده]

السلام عليكم
بنات لو سمحتو في احد منكم عندو اوراق التلخيص اللي سوتها الدكتورة مآثر لمادة براكتكم 1 ؟
اللي عندها الله يعافيها تحطها هنا عشان بنات كتير يحتاجوها وما مداهم ياخدوها قبل البريك

[nadoy]

ايوة الله يعطيكم العافية انا كمان كنت بنزل نفس الموضوع
انا عندي بس تصوير مو في الكمبيوتر
بس كمان مو كاملة
وكمان بالنسبة للاختبار الي تعرف اذا اتاجل او لا

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هاي بنات هذي الاوراق كلها ماني عارفة انزلها ملف وهيك بنزلها كذا ..

1. Introduction: Critical Thinking

1.1 A brief history of the idea of critical thinking


2,500 years ago Socrates
established the importance of asking deep questions, seeking evidence, analyzing basic concepts before we accept ideas as worthy of beliefs

Plato, Aristotle, Greek skeptics
emphasized that things are often very different from what they appear to be and that only the trained mind is prepared to see though the way thing look to us on the surface.

In the middle ages Thomas Aquinas (Sumna Theologica)
ensures that his thinking met the tests of critical thinkers by answering criticisms of his ideas.

15th & 16th C. European scholars (Colet, Erasmus, More in England)
(Renaissance) started thinking critically about religion, art, society, human, law, and freedom

Francis Bacon in England
- wrote The Advancement of Learning, the 1st book in critical thinking
- argued for the importance of studying the world empirically.
- laid the foundation for modern science with his emphasis on the information-gathered process

50 years later Descartes in France
- wrote the 2nd book Rules for the Direction of the Mind
- developed a method of critical thought based on the principle of systematic doubt.

In the same period Sir Thomas More
- developed a model for a new social order Utopia in which every domain the present world was subject to critique.

16th &17th C. Hobbes & Locke
- not to accept the traditional cultural beliefs dominant in the thinking of their day as being rational and normal.
- everything in the world should be explained by evidence and reasoning

17th & 18th C. Robert Boyle & Isaac Newton in Chemistry & nature
+
and other French thinkers in sociology & politics
Adam Smith produces Wealth of Nations in economics

19th C. Darwin's Descent of Man in the biological domain
focused on the history of human culture and the basis of biological life

Sigmund Freud study in the unconscious domain.
Plus other studies in the Anthropological & Linguistics domains.

20th C. no. of thinkers have increased in every domain of human thought and within which reasoning takes place.

Thus…



Students in school should be taught how to think critically. Classes should be designed based on reasoning and rational grounds and not as series of facts.



1.2 Defining critical thinking

Critical thinking …

• is a “process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or gathered by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication as a guide to belief and action.” (pp. 10)

• is a “mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem – in which thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them.” (pp. 10)

• varies according to the motivation underlying it.

• varies in quality from one individual to another.




1.3 Why critical thinking?

 Without critical thinking, a person may..…….(pp. 26)

 jump to conclusion
 fail to think through implications
 lose track to their goal
 are unrealistic
 focus on the trivial
 fail to notice contradictions
 accept inaccurate information
 ask vague questions
 give vague answers
 come to unreasonable conclusions
 think narrowly
 think illogically
 think superficially
 make poor decisions
 are poor communicators




 Without critical thinking, a person may have a dysfunctional life in which he/she may..…….(pp. 27)

- never question his/her relationships. Then, s/he avoids dealing with problems within them.
- misinterpret comments from people around him/her irrationally
- think narrowly in which he never accepts to be criticized by people surrounding him/her.
- never communicate with people other than the group that s/he in.
- never solve his problems. S/he never takes the responsibility to admit his/her mistake. S/he always blames others for his/her own mistakes

 A well cultivated critical thinker:

 raises vital questions and problems clearly and precisely
 interprets relevant information effectively and come to well-reasoned conclusions
 thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought by assessing their assumptions and implications
 communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
(see pp. 11)
1.4 How to be a critical thinker: learning the art of critical thinking


To be a critical thinker, you have to consider the following four steps:

1- Clarify your thinking by trying to figure out the real intended meaning rather than the surface one.
2- Stick to the point by focusing on relevant issues and problems and drifting away from unrelated matters that may disturb the thought.
3- Question questions that are powerful, essential, and deep to make real problems explicit.
4- Be reasonable by being open-minded and accepting other’s reason before defending yourself unreasonably.




1.5 How to make students critical thinkers: helping students assess their thinking

Elder & Paul (1996) have listed 8 guidelines to develop students’ reasoning abilities:

1. All reasoning has a PURPOSE
2. All reasoning is an attempt to FIGURE SOMETHING OUT, TO SETTLE SOME QESTIONS, TO SOLVE SOME PROBLEMS.
3. All reasoning is based on ASSUMPTION
4. All reasoning is done from some POINT OF VIEW
5. All reasoning is based on DATA, INFORMATION, and EVIDENCE
6. All reasoning is expressed thought, and shaped by, CONCEPTS and IDEAS
7. All reasoning contains INFERENCES or INTERPRETATIONS by which we draw CONCLUSIONS and give meaning to data.
8. All reasoning leads somewhere or has IMPLICTIONS and CONSEQUENCES
(see pp. 19)








Summary:

• Over the years, many critical thinkers produced successful studies and inventions in various domains.
• Critical thanking is a “mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem – in which thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking” to make it more skillful.
• Without critical thinking, a person may have a dysfunctional life plus other weaknesses in the way s/he deals with problems.
• On the other hand, a critical thinker has more effective way in dealing with problems.
• Only through clarifying the thought, sticking to a unique point, asking questions being reasonable, the individual becomes a critical thinker.
• Students can be critical thinkers by having a purpose, forming questions, collecting data, forming assumptions, having a view point, drawing a conclusion & consequences.

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2. Critical Thinking in Learning

2.1 Review

• A critical thinker has more effective way in dealing with problems than a non-critical thinker.

• To be a critical thinker, one may
 clarify his/her thinking
 stick to a unique point
 ask questions
 become reasonable.

• Critical thinking, according to Paul (1992), is defined based on two things:
1) Critical thinking is not just thinking, but thinking which entails self-improvement.
2) It is self-improvement (in thinking) by using standards (that assess thinking) to raise their level of thinking to “perfection” or quality.


• To help Students assessing their thinking, the teacher can develop their reasoning abilities in
 having a purpose
 forming questions
 collecting data
 making assumptions
 having a point of view
 drawing a conclusion
 proposing consequences.



2.2 Issues in critical thinking in learning


Paul (1992) states the relationship between critical thinking and other issues:

• The teachers should teach their students reasonably and to be rewarded based on their good reasoning.

• The assessing teacher should have clear reasoning criteria that show system of evaluation.
• Effective instruction includes critical thinking, communication skills, problem solving, creative thinking, collaborative learning, and self-esteem in which critical thinking should be the basic element for the other elements.

• Critical thinking requires intellectual curiosity as the latter helps broaden, deepen, sharpen our minds, and accordingly, leads to knowledge.

• Thus, good instruction should evoke children’s curiosity in asking questions. These questions should be met with logical answers and not with glib answers.

• Schools should prepare their students to be productive. They should transform job skills in way that makes students trained for the practical work.

• Good instruction should meet level of intellectual standards that
- require the student to recognize clarity in contrast to unclarity;
- distinguish accurate from inaccurate accounts;
- decide when a statement is relevant or irrelevant to a given point;
- identify inconsistent positions as well as consistent ones,
- distinguish well-evidenced accounts from those unsupported by reasons and evidence;
- tell good reason from bad.

• Higher-order thinking of extended reasoning essay assessments and long-term assessments of authentic performance are better than lower–order thinking of multiple choice machine-graded assessment.


2.3 Active learning

• To change a passive learning to an active one, the learning process should involve four main activities: two kinds of experience are “observing” and “doing” and two kinds of dialogue are “dialogue with self” and “dialogue with others”

Experience of: Dialogue with:


DOING SELF





OVSERVING OTHERS
Dialogue with self:

When a learner addresses questions about a topic: what they think, what they should think, or what they feel about the topic. It is “thinking about my own thinking”

Dialogue with others:

When the student has the chance to be involved in dialogue situations with practitioners or experts either in class or outside class.


Observing:

When a learner watches or listens to someone else “Doing” something that is related to what they are learning about (e.g. observing natural, social, or cultural phenomena being studied).
Observing
 
“direct”
the learner observing the real world DIRECTLY,
e.g. observing poverty through contacting the low income people

“vicarious”
indirect observation

to watch a movie involving poor people



Doing:

When the learner does something: design a reservoir dam (engineering), design and/or conduct an experiment (natural and social science), make an oral presentation (communication), etc.





To result in active learning, the teacher must implement the above model using the following ways: (see pp. 29-30)

1. Expand the kinds of learning experiences you create.

◦ Create small groups of students and have them make a decision or answer a focused question periodically.
◦ Find ways for students to engage in authentic dialogue with people other than fellow classmates who know something about the subject (on the web, by email, or live)
◦ Have students keep a journal or build a “learning portfolio” about their own thoughts, learning, feelings, etc.
◦ Find ways of helping students observe (directly or vicariously) the subject or action they are trying to learn and/or
◦ find ways to allow students to actually do (directly, or vicariously with case studies, simulation or role play) that which they need to learn to do.

2. Take advantage of the “power of interaction”


Verifying learning activities and interacting all the four modes of learning will result in more positive educational impact.

For example,
 if students write their own thoughts on a topic (Dialogue with Self)  then they engage in small group discussion (Dialogue with Others)  then they observe the phenomena or action (Observation)  then they practice doing the action (Doing)

Such sequence of learning activities will give a better insight of what the learner has learned and what he still needs to learn and will give the teacher and the learners the advantage of the Power of interaction.

3. Create dialectic between experience and dialogue

Creating dialectic between experience and dialogue can maximize the likelihood that the learners will experience significant and meaningful learning.

Thus, the teacher should creatively set a dialectic of learning activities in which students move back and forth between having rich new experience (whether DOING or OBSERVING) and engaging deep, meaningful dialogue (whether with SELF or with OTHERS).


Summary




Reading fro this lecture:
pp.12-8; 28-30

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وهذا ليكشر 3:

3. Good teaching

3.1 Review

• To change the passive learning to an active one, the following model should be implemented:

Experience of: Dialogue with:


DOING SELF





OVSERVING OTHERS


• There are three ways to implement the above model
1. Expand the kinds of learning experiences you create.
2. Take advantage of the “power of interaction”
3. Create dialectic between experience and dialogue


3.2 Elements of good teaching

• Good teaching is based on three elements: scholarship, personal integrity, and the ability to communicate with the young.

1. Scholarship in provoking new meaning to familiar data specificities to generalities, fact to theories, theories to facts in which case scholarship becomes way of life.

2. Integrity a. probity: honesty, principle and decent candor b. completeness: self-confidence in controlling ambiguities, a balanced character (neither being over self confident nor having no self confidence)

3. The ability to communicate with the young: the ability to empathize, to see a situation as the student sees it, to provoke more out of a student than he believed possible (i.e. to believe in the dignity of young people, and to lure him into further learning.

Some apparent minutiae to follow: (see pp. 33-4 for more details)

• knowing the student’s name, and calling them by name.
• greeting students and colleagues pleasantly
• remembering something that had earlier worried a student, and asking about it (“Is your mother recovering from her operation”)
• resisting the hurtful sarcastic to a foolish comment made by the student
• scrupulously following the dictum which all our parents taught us: “If you can’t say anything about someone, don’t say anything at all.”
• Telling a student the unvarnished truth, privately (i.e. George, you’re not working hard enough”

The teacher should also feel the importance for the student individuality and dignity. Here are some minutiae:

• always insisting on the reasons in class and out.
• “hearing” students, and questioning them thoroughly enough to know just how they see or are confused by an issue
• showing that you can change your mind, when evidence and logic suggest it.
• being on the edge of your subject and interest; exhibiting the same questing in your field that you would like your students feel.


Yet other minutiae:

• never being late to class or cutting it for some personal convenience
• returning papers to students within twenty-four hours
• insisting on neat written work, delivered on schedule
• insisting on formality of conduct in a classroom.
• insisting on clear thinking and fair mindedness in the dormitory
• perceiving the results of a class by focusing on what my students learn and not what I, as a teacher, have covered.


Some minutiae that help the students to grow:

• always expect a bit more of a student than he expects of himself.
• accentuate the positive; be careful always to praise good work. No one learns anything faster than when he feels he is successful.
• Be friends with students, but not buddies; the obligations of the latter relationship limit one’s freedom to teach well
• Never give up on a student, or categorize or ‘brand’ him permanently.


3.3 Code of ethics for teachers as educators

Principle 1: Educators nurture the intellectual, physical, emotional, social, and civic potential of each student.

○ ‘Educators help students to value their own identity, learn more about their cultural heritage, and practice social and civic responsibilities’
○ ‘They help students to reflect on their own learning and to connect it to their life experience’
○ ‘They engage students in activities that encourage diverse approaches and solutions to issues’ in a way that demonstrate their abilities and learning.


Principle 2: Educators create, support, and maintain challenging learning environments for all

○ Educators promote student learning
○ They utilize a range of strategies to address differences
○ They advocate for necessary resources o teach higher levels of learning
○ They develop and apply knowledge by displaying a curiosity and enthusiasm for learning


Principle 3: Educators commit to their own learning in order to develop their practice.

○ Educators improve their own practice by respecting the reciprocal nature of learning between educators and students.
○ They engage in a variety of individual and collaborative learning experiences essential to develop and promote student learning.

Principle 4: Educators collaborate with colleagues and other professionals in the interest of student learning

○ ‘Educators encourage and support their colleagues to build and maintain high standards’.
○ ‘They participate in decisions regarding curriculum, instruction and assessment designs, and they share responsibility for the governance of schools’

Principle 5: Educators collaborate with parents and community, building trust and respecting confidentiality

○ ‘Educators partner with parents and other members of the community to enhance school programs and to promote student learning’
○ ‘They respect the private nature of the special knowledge they have about students and their families and use that knowledge only in the students’ best interests’

Principle 6: Educators advance the intellectual and ethical foundation of the learning community

○ ‘Educators share the responsibility for understanding what is known, pursing further knowledge, translating knowledge into comprehensible forms’


3.4 Common teaching methods

• There are 14 common methods for teaching:

1. Lecture 8. Case studies
2. Lecture with discussion 9. Role playing
3. Panel of experts 10. Report-back session
4. Brainstorming 11. Worksheets/surveys
5. Video tapes 12. Index card exercise
6. Class discussion 13. Guest speaker
7. Small group discussion 14. Values clarification exercise








Each of these methods has good points (i.e. STRENGTHS), LINITATIONS and PREPARATION


1. Lecture

STRENGTHS

- present factual material in direct, logical manner
- contains experience which inspires
- stimulates thinking to open discussion
- useful for large groups

LIMITATIONS

- experts are not always good teachers
- audience is passive
- learning is difficult to gauge
- communication in one way

PREPARATION

- needs clear introduction and summary
- needs time and content limit to be effective
- should include examples, anecdotes



2. Lecture with discussion

STRENGTHS

- involves audience at least after the lecture
- audience can question, clarify, & challenge


LIMITATIONS

- time may limit discussion period
- quality is limited to quality of questions and discussion

PREPARATION

- requires that questions be prepared prior to discussion




3. Panel of experts

STRENGTHS

- allows experts to present difficult opinions
- can provoke better discussion than a one person discussion
- frequent change of speaker keeps attention lagging

LIMITATION

- experts may not be good speakers
- personalities may overshadow content
- subject may not be in logical order

PREPARATION

- facilitators coordinates focus of panel, introduces and summaries
- beliefs panel

4. Brainstorming

STRENGTHS

- listening exercising that allows creative thinking for new ideas
- encourages full participation because all ideas are equally recorded
- draws on group’s knowledge and experience
- spirit of congeniality is created
- one idea can spark off other ideas


LIMITATION

- can be unfocused
- needs to be limited to 5 – 7 minutes
- people may have difficulty getting away from known reality
- if not facilitated well, criticism and evaluation may occur

PREPARATION

- facilitator selects issue
- must have some ideas if group needs to be stimulated


Summary:

• Good teaching is based on three elements: scholarship, personal integrity, and the ability to communicate with the young.
• Code of ethics for teachers as educators are of six principles: educators nurture the intellectual, physical, emotional, social, and civic potential of each student, educators create, support, and maintain challenging learning environments for all, educators commit to their own learning in order to develop their practice, educators collaborate with colleagues and other professionals in the interest of student learning, educators collaborate with parents and community, building trust and respecting confidentiality, and educators advance the intellectual and ethical foundation of the learning community
• There are 14 common methods for teaching:

1. Lecture 8. Case studies
2. Lecture with discussion 9. Role playing
3. Panel of experts 10. Report-back session
4. Brainstorming 11. Worksheets/surveys
5. Video tapes 12. Index card exercise
6. Class discussion 13. Guest speaker
7. Small group discussion 14. Values clarification exercise










Reading for this lecture:
pp. 32-8

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وهذا ليكشر 4:


4. Common Teaching Methods 2

There are 14 common methods for teaching:

1. Lecture 8. Case studies
2. Lecture with discussion 9. Role playing
3. Panel of experts 10. Report-back session
4. Brainstorming 11. Worksheets/surveys
5. Video tapes 12. Index card exercise
6. Class discussion 13. Guest speaker
7. Small group discussion 14. Values clarification exercise








5. Video tapes

STRENGTHS

- entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues
- keep group’s attention
- looks professional
- stimulates discussion

LIMITATION

- can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion
- discussion may not have full participation
- only as effective as following discussion

PREPARATION

- need to set up equipment
- effective only if facilitator prepares questions to discuss after the show


6. Class discussion

STRENGTHS

- pools ideas and experiences from group
- effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be analyzed
- allows everyone to participate in an active process

LIMITATION

- not practical with more than 20 people
- few people can dominate
- others may not participate
- is time consuming
- can get off the track

PREPARATION

- requires careful planning by facilitator to guide discussion
- requires question outline


7. Small group discussion

STRENGTHS

- allows participation of everyone
- people often more comfortable in small groups
- can reach group consensus

LIMITATION

- needs careful thought as to purpose of group
- groups may get side tracked

PREPARATION

- needs to prepare specific tasks or questions for group to answer


8. Case studies

STRENGTHS

- develop analytic and problem solving skills
- allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues
- allows student to apply new knowledge and skills

LIMITATION

- people may not see relevance to own situation
- insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results

PREPARATION

- case must be clearly defined in some cases
- case must be prepared



9. Role playing

STRENGTHS

- introduces problem situation dramatically
- provide opportunity for people to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view
- allows for exploration of solutions
- provides opportunity to practice skills

LIMITATION

- people may be too self-conscious
- not appropriate for large groups
- people may feel threatened

PREPARATION

- trainer has to define problem situation and roles clearly
- trainer must give very clear instructions


10. Report-back session

STRENGTHS

- allows for large group discussion of role plays, case studies, and small group exercise
- gives people a chance to reflect on experience
- each group takes responsibility for its operation

LIMITATION

- can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing

PREPARATION

- trainer has to prepare questions for groups to discuss



11. Worksheets/surveys

STRENGTHS

- allows people to think for themselves without being influenced by others
- individual thoughts can then be shared in large group

LIMITATION

- can be used only for short period of time

PREPARATION

- facilitator has to prepare handouts



12. Index card exercise

STRENGTHS

- opportunity to explore difficult and complex issues

LIMITATION

- people may not do exercise

PREPARATION

- facilitator has to prepare questions



13. Guest speaker

STRENGTHS

- personalized topic

LIMITATION

- may not be a good speaker

PREPARATION

- coordinate and contact speakers
- introduce speaker appropriately






14. Value clarification exercise

STRENGTHS

- opportunity to explore values and beliefs
- allows people to discuss values in a safe environment
- gives structure to discussion

LIMITATION

- people may not be honest
- people may not be too self-conscious

PREPARATION

- facilitator must carefully prepare exercise
- must give clear instructions
- facilitator must prepare discussion questions



Summary:

• Common methods for teaching are of 14 types:

1. Lecture 8. Case studies
2. Lecture with discussion 9. Role playing
3. Panel of experts 10. Report-back session
4. Brainstorming 11. Worksheets/surveys
5. Video tapes 12. Index card exercise
6. Class discussion 13. Guest speaker
7. Small group discussion 14. Values clarification exercise








Each of which has good points (i.e. STRENGTHS), LINITATIONS and PREPARATION






Reading for this lecture:

pp. 38-40

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وهذا ليكشر 5:



5. Visual Aids & Teaching Effectiveness

5.1 Review

• There are 14 common methods for teaching: 1. Lecture; 2. Lecture with discussion; 3. Panel of experts; 4. Brainstorming; 5. Video tapes; 6. Class discussion; 7. Small group discussion; 8. Case studies; 9. Role playing; 10. Report-back session; 11. Worksheets/surveys; 12. Index card exercise; 13. Guest speaker; 14. Values clarification exercise


5.2Common visual aids

• Visual aids are of 6 kinds:

1. Flip chart/posters
2. Slides
3. Videos
4. Overhead transparencies
5. Computer projections (e.g., power point)
6. Samples, examples, and Mock-ups

Each kind has number of ADVANTAGES and DISADVANTAGES

1. Flip chart/posters

ADVANTAGES

- easy and inexpensive to make and update
- portable and transportable
- left in view of the audience
- good for interaction with the audience

DISADVANTAGES

- unsuitable for large groups
- anxiety-provoking for facilitator with poor handwriting or poor spelling


2. Slides

ADVANTAGES
- professional for appearance
- good for large groups

DISADVANTAGES

- formal and impersonal
- shown in the dark
- not good for discussion and interaction
- more difficult to update than other visual aids
- require special equipment

3. Videos

ADVANTAGES

- professional in appearance
- good for large and small groups

DISADVANTAGES

- more expensive than other visual aids
- require special equipment
- not good for discussion and interaction
- require accurate cueing

4. Overhead transparencies

ADVANTAGES

- good for large groups
- easy to create
- easy to transport
- provide an informal atmosphere
- open to interaction with group
- easy to update

DISADVANTAGES

- impermanent; they yellow with age
- require less common equipment


5. Computer projections (e.g., power point)

ADVANTAGES

- professional in appearance
- evidence of preparation
- good for large or small group
- easy to integrate with class discussion
- animated
- up-to-date technology
- easy to update

DISADVANTAGES

- require special equipment/facilities
- require initial training to create
- require significant time to create
- require basic graphics/composition skills


6. Samples, examples, and Mock-ups

ADVANTAGES

- real world/authentic
- three dimensional
- sometimes inexpensive and readily available
- experience may be tactile/auditory as well as visual

DISADVANTAGES

- sometimes difficult or impossible to acquire
- often difficult to handle or distribute
- require storage space
- usually out of natural environment


6.2 Ways to Enhance Teaching Effectiveness

• There are 11 ways to enhance teaching effectiveness:

1. Seize the moment

‘Teaching is more effective when it occurs in quick response to a need the learner feels’. It’s better to answer student question on the spot.


2. Involve the student in planning

• Giving the student the chance to identify his/her needs, objectives, and outcomes will help him/her to be creative and, accordingly, will promote the learning process.

3. Begin with what the student knows

• Teaching that begins by building on what the student already knows then moving to what he/she doesn’t know helps him/her to grasp the new information more quickly.


4. Move from simple to complex

• Teaching becomes more effective if it begins by introducing simple concepts then moving to complex ones.


5. Accommodate the student’s preferred learning style

• Learners are of different styles. Some are visual who learn by seeing or reading the information. Others are auditory who learn by listening. Also, tactile or psychomotor students are those who learn by doing.

• The teacher should best administer the style of teaching based on the learner’s style.

• To know the learner’s style, the teacher may either observe the student, or simply ask the student.


6. Sort goals by learning domain

• Learning behaviors fall into three domains: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective.

• The cognitive domain deals with intellectual abilities. The psychomotor domain includes physical or motor skills. The affective domain involves expression of feeling about attitudes, interests, and values.



7. Make material meaningful

• ‘The more meaningful material is to a student, the quicker and easier it will be learned’
• One way to make the material more meaningful is to relate the material to the student’s lifestyle.





8. Allow immediate application of knowledge

• Immediate application of knowledge reinforces learning and provides the opportunity for problem solving, feedback, and emotional support.

• The immediate application translates learning to the “real world”


9. Plan for periodic rests

• Students may become mentally fatigue and, accordingly, do not accept any new information. Thus, it is important to let them relax whenever necessary.


10. Tell your students how they are progressing

• ‘Positive feedback can motivate the students to greater effort’.

• Asking the students to assess themselves and to say their opinion about how they feel is also important.

11. Reward desired learning with praise

• Praising the student’s success motivates the students to retain the material or repeat the behavior.

 BUT HOW CAN WE MOTIVATE OUR STUDENTS?

The answer is in the next lecture…..

Summary:

• There are 6 visual aids for teaching: 1. Flip chart/posters; 2. Slides; 3. Videos; 4. Overhead transparencies; 5. Computer projections (e.g., power point); 6. Samples, examples, and Mock-ups.

• There are 11 ways to enhance teaching effectiveness 1. Seize the moment; 2. Involve the student in planning. 3. Begin with what the student knows; 4. Move from simple to complex; 5. Accommodate the student’s preferred learning style; 6. Sort goals by learning domain; 7. Make material meaningful; 8. Allow immediate application of knowledge; 9. Plan for periodic rests; 10. Tell your students how they are progressing; 11. Reward desired learning with praise

Reading for this lecture:
pp.41-5

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وهذا ليكشر 6:




6. Motivating Students 1

6.1 Review

• There are 6 visual aids for teaching: 1. Flip chart/posters; 2. Slides; 3. Videos; 4. Overhead transparencies; 5. Computer projections (e.g., power point); 6. Samples, examples, and Mock-ups.

• There are 11 ways to enhance teaching effectiveness 1. Seize the moment; 2. Involve the student in planning. 3. Begin with what the student knows; 4. Move from simple to complex; 5. Accommodate the student’s preferred learning style; 6. Sort goals by learning domain; 7. Make material meaningful; 8. Allow immediate application of knowledge; 9. Plan for periodic rests; 10. Tell your students how they are progressing; 11. Reward desired learning with praise

 Is the effectiveness of teaching enough to motivate students to learn?




6.2 Motivating Students

To motivate students, the teacher may consider some general strategies, instructional behavior, other general principles, and motivation factors & strategies by time period.


6.2.1 General Strategies

General strategies that a teacher may follow are three:


1. Capitalize on students’ existing needs

• Students’ needs vary as follows:
- a need to learn in order to complete a particular task or activity
- a need to perfect skills
- a need to overcome challenges
- a need to become competent
- a need to succeed and do well
- a need to feel involved and to interact with other people

• The teacher should design assignments, in-class activities, discussion questions to address these kinds of needs.
2. Make students active participants in learning

• Instead of presenting the information, the teacher is better ask a question or present a problem, then let the students find the answer or solution.

• Students can best learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, solving.


3. Ask students to analyze what make their classes more or less “motivating”

• The student is the best person to determine the factors that makes his/her motivation high or low

• According to Sass (1989), major contributors to student motivation are eight:

 Instructor’s enthusiasm  Active involvement of students
 Relevance of the material  Variety
 Organization of the course  Rapport between teacher and students
 Appropriate difficulty level of the material  Use of appropriate, concrete, and understandable examples



6.2.2 Six Incorporating Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students


1 Hold high but realistic expectation for your students

• Students are motivated by their teacher’s expectations.

• Thus, the teacher should give “realistic”, high enough expectations for students in making assignments, giving presentations, and grading examinations.

• Too high expectations may, on the other hand, tern to frustration.



2 Help students set achievable goals for themselves

• The teacher should encourage students to focus on their self-evaluations and on their continued improvement, and not on their grades.


3 Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course

• The teacher should tell the students exactly what they must do or know to succeed.

For example, the teacher can say something like “If you can handle the examples on these problem sheets, you can pass the exam”


4 Strengthen students’ self-motivation

• The teacher should select the words that focus on the students’ self-motivation and not the teacher’s power of extrinsic rewarding.

For example, instead of saying “I require,” “you must,” “you should,” you better say “I think you will find…” or “I will be interested in your reaction”


5 Avoid creating intense competition among students

• Students show better comprehension and performance when the tendency to compare a student to one another becomes less.

• According to Bligh (1971), it is favorable for the students to work cooperatively in groups rather than to compete as individuals


6 Be enthusiastic about your subject

• The instructor’s enthusiasm and excitement about the content motivate students.

• If the instructor is uninterested in the material, s/he may think to devise the most exiting way to represent the material.


 But how can teachers motivate their students?

6.2.3 Five General Principles of Motivation

1. The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned

◦ The teacher may attract the students’ attention and curiosity by using interesting visual aids such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment, etc.

2. Incentives motivate learning

◦ Students need external incentives such as privileges or praises in order to succeed.

◦ The concept of rewarding may also be achieved whenever the student understands that the goals are useful to them or enjoy exploring new things.


3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards

◦ For children of certain ages and some adults, learning becomes more effective by the use of external motivation such as rewards.

◦ However, rewards should be used only whenever needed; otherwise, they may decline the internal motivation.



4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something.

◦ Students vary in their readiness to learn. If a student is not yet ready to learn, the instructor should encourage him/her to learn until the desired change in the behavior is achieved.



5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized

◦ One way to organize material, the instructor may relate new tasks to already known ones.

◦ Another way is to determine whether the learner understand the final outcome so they can compare and contrast ideas.







6.2.4 Motivation Factors and Strategies by Time Period: Beginning, During, and Ending


Time

BEGINNING: when learner enters and starts learning

Motivational Factors

ATTITUDES: Toward the environment, teacher, subject matter, and self

NEEDS: The basic need within the learner at the time of learning

Motivational Strategies

- Make the conditions that surround the subject positive
- Positively confront the possibly erroneous beliefs, expectations, and assumptions that may underlie a negative attitude.
- Reduce or remove component of the learning environments that lead to failure or fear.
- Plan activities to allow learners to meet esteem needs.



Time

DURING: When learner involved in the body or main content of the learning process

Motivational Factors

STIMULATION: The stimulation processes affecting learner during the learning experience.

AFFECT: The emotional experience of the learner while learning

Motivational Strategies

- Change style and content of the learning activity
- Make learner reaction and involvement essential parts of the learner process, that is, problem solving, role playing, stimulation.
- Use learning concerns to organize content and to develop themes and teaching procedures
- Use a group cooperation goal to maximize learner involvement and sharing.

Time

ENDING: When learner is completing the learning process.

Motivational Factors

COMPETENCE: The competence value of the learner that is a result of the learning behavior.

REINFORCEMENT: The reinforcement value attached to the learning experience for the learner.

Motivational Strategies


- Provide consistent feedback regarding mastery of learning.
- Acknowledge and affirm the learners’ responsibility in completing the learning task.
- When learning has natural consequences, allow them to be congruently evident.
- Provide artificial reinforcement when it contributes to successful learning, and provide closure with a positive ending.

























Summary:

• To motivate students, the teacher may consider some general strategies, instructional behavior, other general principles, and motivation factors.

• General strategies that a teacher may follow are three: capitalize on students’ existing needs, make students active participants in learning, ask students to analyze what make their classes more or less “motivating”

• Incorporating instructional behaviors that motivate students are six:
 Hold high but realistic expectation for your students
 Help students set achievable goals for themselves
 Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course
 Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something.
 Avoid creating intense competition among students
 Be enthusiastic about your subject

• General principles of motivation are five:
 The environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned
 Incentives motivate learning
 Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than external motivation
 Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something.
 Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized

• Motivation factors and strategies differ according to time period: beginning, during, and ending










Reading for this lecture:

pp. 46-51

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وهذا ليكشر 7:




7. Motivating Students 2

7.1 Review

• To motivate students, the teacher may consider some general strategies, instructional behavior, other general principles, and motivation factors & strategies by TIME.

• There are four more points for the teacher to consider to motivate his/her students:
 structuring the course to motivate students
 de-emphasizing grades
 motivating students by responding to their work
 motivating students to do the reading


7.1 Structuring the Course to Motivate Students

The course can be structured to motivate students by using the following four methods:

1. Work from students’ strengths and interests

◦ The instructor may ask the student about the reason why they are enrolled in the course and their expectations, then s/he may try to relate the course content to the student’s interests and experiences.

◦ The instructor may also try to explain how the content and the objectives of the course will help students to achieve their educational goals.

(As noted in Brock, 1976; Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)



2. When possible, let students have some say in choosing what they will be studied

◦ The instructor can have the students decide between two locations for the field trip, or have them select which topics to explore in greater depth.

◦ Also the instructor may, if possible, include optional or alternative units in the course.

(As noted in Ames and Ames, 1990; Cashin, 1979; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991; Lowman, 1984)



3. Increase the difficulty of the material as the semester progresses

◦ The instructor may give all the students the opportunity to succeed at the beginning of the semester by making assignments and exams easy.

◦ Once the students feel they can succeed, the instructor can gradually increase the difficulty level by mixing between easier and harder questions in the exams to make the exam more challenging.

(As noted in Cashin, 1979)


4. Vary your teaching methods

◦ Breaking the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities reawakens students’ involvement and motivation.

◦ Among the teaching methods are role playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers, small group work.

(As noted in Forsyth and McMillan, 1991)


7.2 De-emphasizing Grades

The teacher may de-emphasize grades by three methods:

1. To emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades

◦ ‘Researches recommend de-emphasizing grading by eliminating complex systems of credit points’

◦ ‘They also advise against trying to use grades to control nonacademic behavior’

◦ Instead, teachers may ‘assign ungraded written work, stress the personal satisfaction of doing assignments, and help students measure their progress’


2. To design tests that encourage the kind of learning you want students to achieve

◦ Students usually focus on whatever is necessary for them to get grades.

◦ The teacher may base the test on the skill s/he wants the students to learn:
 if the test is base on memorizing details, students will focus on memorizing facts.
 if the test is based on synthesis and evaluation of information, students will be motivated to practice those skills when they study.

(As pointed out by McKeachie, 1986)

3. To avoid using grades as threats

◦ Despite that the threat of low grades may motivate some students, other students ‘resort to academic dishonesty, excuses for late work, and other counterproductive behavior.’ (As pointed out by McKeachie, 1986)


7.3 Motivating Students by Responding to Their Work

The teacher can motivate his/her students by responding to their work through the following six methods:

1. To give students feedback as quickly as possible

◦ The teacher may return tests and reward success immediately and publicly.

◦ The reward can simply be by saying that a student’s work was good, explaining why it was good, and mentioning the names of contributors.

◦ The teacher may also give the students some indication of ‘how well they have done and how to improve’


2. To reward success

◦ Both positive and negative feedback influence motivation,

◦ But positive feedback is more effective as it builds the student’s self-esteem and self-confidence.

◦ If a student’s performance is weak, the teacher may inform him/her that s/he can improve and succeed over time. (Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990)


3. To introduce students to the good work done by their peers

◦ The teacher may let the whole class share the ideas, knowledge, and accomplishments of individual students.

◦ Suggested ways to share peers are as follows:

 ‘Pass out a list of research topics chosen by students so they will know whether others are writing papers of interests to them.
 Make available copies of the best papers and essay exams
 Provide class time for students to read papers or assignments submitted by classmates.
 Have students write a brief critique of a classmate’s paper.
 Schedule a brief talk by a student who has experience or who is doing a research paper on a topic relevant to your lecture’


4. To be specific when giving negative feedback

◦ Because negative feedback can lead to a negative atmosphere, the negative feedback should be too specific related to a particular task or performance, not to the student as a person.



5. To avoid demeaning comments

◦ Teacher’s comments and remarks about students should be phrased carefully in such a way that does not prick their feelings of inadequacy.



6. To avoid giving in to the students’ pleas for “the answer” to homework problems

◦ The teacher should not give the students any hints about the answer. They should have the chance to think and to develop greater patience.

The teacher may use a more productive approach as follows
(adapted from Fiore, 1985)

 Ask the students for one possible approach to the problem
 Gently brush aside students’ anxiety about not getting the answer by refocusing their attention on the problem at hand.
 Ask the students to build on what they do know about the problem
 Resist answering the question “is this right?”
 Praise the students for small, independent steps



7.4 Motivating Students to Do the Reading

The teacher can motivate his/her students to do the reading using eight ways:

1. Assigning the reading at least two sessions before it will be discussed

The student may be given ample time to prepare and read (Lowman, 1984)

2. Assigning study questions

The teacher may hand out study questions that students to the key points of the reading assignment.

3. Having the students turn in brief notes on the day’s reading that they can use during exams if the class is small

The teacher can encourage submitting notes about what they have read in the beginning of each class.

4. Asking students to write a one-word journal or one-word sentence

It is useful, as noted by Angelo (1991), to ask the students to choose a single word that best summarizes the reading. Or, as reported by Ericson and Strommer (1991), student may be asked to write one complex sentence in answer to a question the teacher poses about the readings.

5. Asking nonthreatening questions about the reading

The teacher may pose questions that do not cause tension or feeling of resistance:

 “Can you give me one or two items from the chapter that seem important?”
 “What section of the reading do you think we should review?”
 “What item in the reading surprised you?”
 “What topics in the chapter can you apply to your own experience?”


6. Using class time as a reading period

If the teacher finds that only few students have completed the reading assignment, s/he may ask to read the material in class silently or loudly and to discuss the key points.





7. Preparing an exam question on undiscussed reading

Whenever the teacher finds that the class didn’t do the reading assignment, s/he may force the students to read the material on their own in which they will expect a question in the following exam on the undiscussed part.



8. Giving a written assignment to those students who have not done the reading

The teacher may ask the students who haven't read the material to hand in a written assignment and to be dismissed whereas those who have done the reading may stay and participate in the class discussion.


7.5 Summary

• The course can be structured in a way that motivates students by using four methods: to work from students’ strengths and interests, to let students choose what they will be studied, to increase the difficulty of the material as the semester progresses, and to vary your teaching methods
• The teacher may de-emphasize grades by three methods: to emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades, to design tests that encourage the kind of learning you want students to achieve, and to avoid using grades as threats
• The teacher can motivate students by responding to their work through six methods: s/he may give students feedback as quickly as possible, reward success, introduce students to the good work done by their peers, be specific when giving negative feedback, avoid demeaning comments, avoid giving in to the students’ pleas for “the answer” to homework problems.
• The teacher can motivate his/her students to do the reading using eight ways: assigning the reading at least two sessions before it will be discussed, assigning study questions, having the students turn in brief notes on the day’s reading that they can use during exams if the class is small, asking students to write a one-word journal or one-word sentence, asking nonthreatening questions about the reading, using class time a reading period, preparing an exam question on undiscussed reading, giving a written assignment to those students who have not done the reading




Reading for this lecture:

PP. 51-5

[ابغى اتخرج وبسس]

طبعا مرررررررررررة سوري اني نزلتها بهالطريقة لاني معرف طريقة الملفات المضغوطة وهيك بس قلت انزلها كذا لاني ما عاد صار في وقت الاختبار يوم الثلاثاء على حد علمي هذا اذا ما اتاجل وهي بس 7 ليكشرات بسسس ...وانا شخصيا راح اعتمد على الاوراق في المذاكرة لان بنات السنة اللي راحت قالوا كل الاسئلة جت من الاوراق ويكفي ان الاوراق مرتبة ومنظمة احسن من الكتاب الكتاب كله دششش وملخبط وعايم على بعضه ...