كل ما يتعلق بالدورة التأهيلية المستوى الخامس للمواد التالية ((321 & 331 & 341 & 350 )

[طالب متفائل]

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

أسعد الله مسائك / صباحكم بالخير ,, وبعد
التقرير الثاني لمادة مقدمة في اللغويات 321 ليوم الأثنين 26 / 5 /1431 عن الأستاذ القدير محمود الصبحي

في أول يوم من الدورة خلصنا الشابتر الأول , واليوم قفز الى الشابتر السابع لسبب أن هذا الشابتر لابد من الفهم خلاف عن الشباتر السابقه لإن الشباتر الاولى يمكننا قرائتها وفهمها

بسم الله نبداء وسوف أحاول أن أبسط هذا الشابتر بأعلى جهد وحسب فهمي من الأستاذ فأن اصبت فمن الله سبحانه وأن أخطأت فهو مني ومن الشيطان وأسئل الله العلي القدير التوفيق لنا ولكم

Morphology

علم الــــصــرف

صفحه 62
Throughout the preceding chapter, we approached the deion of processes
involved in word formation as if the unit called the ‘word’ was always a regular
and easily identifiable form, even when it is a form such as bambification that
we may never have seen before. This doesn’t seem unreasonable when we look
at a text of written English, since the ‘words’ in the text are, quite obviously,
those sets of things marked in black with the bigger spaces separating them.
Unfortunately, there are a number of problems with using this observation as
the basis of an attempt to describe language in general, and individual linguistic
forms in particular.
Morphology
In many languages, what appear to be single forms actually turn out to contain a
large number of ‘word-like’ elements. For example, in Swahili (spoken throughout
East Africa), the form nitakupenda conveys what, in English, would have
to be represented as something like I will love you. Now, is the Swahili form a
single word? If it is a ‘word’, then it seems to consist of a number of elements
which, in English, turn up as separate ‘words’. A rough correspondence can be
presented in the following way:
ni -ta -ku -penda
I will you love
It would seem that this Swahili ‘word’ is rather different from what we think of
as an English ‘word’.Yet, there clearly is some similarity between the languages,
in that similar elements of the whole message can be found in both. Perhaps a
better way of looking at linguistic forms in different languages would be to use
this notion of ‘elements’ in the message, rather than depend on identifying only
‘words’.
The type of exercise we have just performed is an example of investigating
basic forms in language, generally known as morphology. This term, which
literally means ‘the study of forms’, was originally used in biology, but, since

طلب منها قرائتة


the middle of the nineteenth century, has also been used to describe the type of
investigation that analyzes all those basic ‘elements’ used in a language. What
we have been describing as ‘elements’ in the form of a linguistic message are
technically known as ‘morphemes’.

Morphemes

تعريفه هو اللي موجود في اللون الاحمر وهو مهم جدا

We do not actually have to go to other languages such as Swahili to discover
that ‘word forms’ may consist of a number of elements. We can recognize that
English word forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one
element talk, and a number of other elements such as -s, -er, -ed and -ing. All
these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of a morpheme is

“a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function”. Units of grammatical
function include forms used to indicate past tense or plural, for example.
In the sentence The police reopened the investigation, the word reopened
consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open, another
minimal unit of meaning is re- (meaning ‘again’) and a minimal unit of grammatical
function is -ed (indicating past tense). The word tourists also contains
three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning tour, another minimal
unit of meaning -ist (marking ‘person who does something’), and a minimal
unit of grammatical function -s (indicating plural).

Free and bound morphemes

From these examples, we can make a broad distinction between two types of
morphemes. There are free morphemes, that is, morphemes that can stand by
themselves as single words, for example, open and tour. There are also bound
morphemes, which are those forms that cannot normally stand alone and are
typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s. This last set
is familiar from chapter 6, where they were identified as affixes. So, we can
say that all affixes (prefixes and suffixes) in English are bound morphemes. The
free morphemes can generally be identified as the set of separate English word
forms such as basic nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. When they are used with bound
morphemes attached, the basic word forms are technically known as stems. For
example:
undressed carelessness
un- dress -ed care -less -ness
prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix
(bound) (free) (bound) (free) (bound) (bound)
We should note that this type of deion is a partial simplification of the
morphological facts of English. There are a number of English words in which

وأعطانا مثال وسوف اوضحه هنا

مثلا كلمه reopened

اللون الاحمر يسمى prefix
اللون الازرق يسمى stem (free)
اللون الاخضر يسمى suffix (bound)

في كلمه grammatical function ماذا تعني هذه الكلمه او ما ذا يقصد بها
مثال cars
الــ s هي الــ grammatical function

تسمى prefixes & suffixes = affixes


the element treated as the stem is not, in fact, a free morpheme. In words such
as receive, reduce and repeat, we can identify the bound morpheme re- at the
beginning, but the elements -ceive, -duce and -peat are not separate word forms
and hence cannot be free morphemes. These types of forms are sometimes
described as ‘bound stems’ to keep them distinct from ‘free stems’ such as
dress and care.

ما ذا تعني الــ bound stems’
تعني هذه الكلمات = receive, reduce and repeat,
لماذا السبب لانهم يختلفون عن reopen
اذا حذفنا الــ re من reopen طلعت open يعني كلمه معرووفه ,, لكن اذا اخذنا أحدى الكلمات الثالثه من الــ bound stems
مثلاً كلمه receive وحذفنا الــ re تطلع كلمه ceine ليس لها معنى ! هنا تسمى بالــ bound stems

Lexical and functional morphemes

What we have described as free morphemes fall into two categories. The first
category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that we think of
as the words that carry the ‘content’ of the messages we convey. These free
morphemes are called lexical morphemes and some examples are: girl, man,
house, tiger, sad, long, yellow, sincere, open, look, follow, break. We can add
new lexical morphemes to the language rather easily, so they are treated as an
‘open’ class of words.
Other types of free morphemes are called functional morphemes. Examples
are and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them. This
set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions,
prepositions, articles and pronouns. Because we almost never add new
functional morphemes to the language, they are described as a ‘closed’ class of
words.


ما ذا يقصد Lexical and functional morphemes
شرح مبسط وسهل جدا
يقصد بالكلمه التي بالون الاحمر هي الاسماء , الصفات والأفعال nouns, adjectives and verbs
أمثله عليهم = house, tiger , open, اي يا انها اسماء او كلمات نستطيع ان نظيف عليها الــ prefix or suffix مثل كلمه reopened

وهذه الخاصيه تسمى open ' class of words لاننا استطعنا ان نظيف على الكلمات من الــ affixes

اما المقصود من الجزء الاخر من الكلمة التي باللون الاحمر Lexical and functional morphemes

بختصار يقصد بها الــ conjunctions,
prepositions, articles and pronouns.
وهي الضمائر وحروف الجر والراوبط

مثل are and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them.

وهي التي من المستحيل ان نظيف عليها من prefix & suffix

وتسمى 'closed' class of word


Derivational and inflectional morphemes

The set of affixes that make up the category of bound morphemes can also be
divided into two types. One type we have already considered in chapter 6 when
we looked at the derivation of words. These are the derivational morphemes.
We use these bound morphemes to make new words or to make words of a
different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the
derivational morpheme -ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness.
The noun care can become the adjectives careful or careless by the addition
of the derivational morphemes -ful or -less. A list of derivational morphemes
will include suffixes such as the -ish in foolish, -ly in quickly, and the -ment in
payment. The list will also include prefixes such as re-, pre-, ex-, mis-, co-, un-,and many more.
The second set of bound morphemes contains what are called inflectional
morphemes. These are not used to produce new words in the language, but
rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Inflectional
morphemes are used to showif aword is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not,
and if it is a comparative or possessive form. English has only eight inflectional
morphemes (or ‘inflections’), illustrated in the following sentences.

ايضا سوف اشرحها بختصار ناخذ اول جزئيه وهي الكلمة التي باللون الاحمر Derivational and inflectional morphemes

يقصد بها اي نستخدمها لعمل كلمة جديده او نعمل كلمه
مثال كلمة care وهي اسم noun من هذه الخاصيه نقدر نحولها الى صفه adjectives وتصبح careful or careless

وايضا ly in quickly, and the -ment in
payment

اما الجزء الاخر من القاعده وهو ما كتب باللون الاحمر Derivational and inflectional morphemes

عكس القاعده Derivational ولا يمكننا اضافه مثل ما اضفنا هنا

فقط تستخدم للقرامر نستخدمها فقط اذا اردنا ان نعرف هل هي جمع ام مفرد او هي هي جمله ماضيه ام مستقبلا
مثال في صفحه 65
وهذا هو المثال التالي

Jim’s two sisters are really different.
One likes to have fun and is always laughing.
The other liked to read as a child and has always taken things seriously.
One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse.
From these examples, we can see that two of the inflections, -’s (possessive) and
-s (plural), are attached to nouns. There are four inflections attached to verbs,
-s (3rd person singular), -ing (present participle), -ed (past tense) and -en (past
participle). There are two inflections attached to adjectives: -est (superlative)
and -er (comparative). In English, all the inflectional morphemes are suffixes.
Noun + -’s, -s
وتعني هنا هل الـ s هي للملكيه ام للجمع
Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en
وهنا مثال للتوضيح plays playing played spoken
Adjective + -est, -er
اما هنا يقصد بها بالمقارنه مثل Longer Longest


Morphological deion

The difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes is worth
emphasizing. An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category
of aword. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The -er inflection
here (from Old English -ra) simply creates a different version of the adjective.
However, a derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a
word. The verb teach becomes the noun teacher if we add the derivational morpheme
-er (from Old English -ere). So, the suffix -er in modern English can be
an inflectional morpheme as part of an adjective and also a distinct derivational
morpheme as part of a noun. Just because they look the same (-er) doesn’t mean
they do the same kind of work.
Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix attached to
the same word, they always appear in that order. First the derivational (-er) is
attached to teach, then the inflectional (-s) is added to produce teachers.
Armed with all these terms for different types of morphemes, we can now
take most sentences of English apart and list all the ‘elements’. For example, in
the sentence The child’s wildness shocked the teachers, we can identify eleven
morphemes.
The child -’s wild -ness
functional lexical inflectional lexical derivational
shock -ed the teach -er -s
lexical inflectional functional lexical derivational inflectional

هنا يوضح لابد قرائه ما هو ملون بالاحمر وشدد على ان نفرق بين The difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes

واسفل الصفحه موضع على شكل ترتيب
وايضا هذه الرسمه التي توجد في اعلى صفحه 66

اما في نفس صفحه 66 العنوان الذي بدايتة

Problems in morphological deion

قرائه فقط

اما في الاخير

Morphs and allomorphs

معني allomorphs سوف اوضحها بجدول

مثال men [man +plural ]= irr
car [ car + plural ] = s
Buses [ bus +plural ] = es
cheep [ sheep + plural ] = o
المثال الاخير اخر حرف o ولس حرف الاو وينما رمز الفاي صفر

كل اللي باللون الأحمر يقصد به هنا allomorphs


هذا وصلى الله على نبينا محمد وعلى اله وصبحه اجمعين
تحياتي لكم طالب متفائل