كل ما يتعلق بالدورة التأهيلية المستوى الخامس للمواد التالية ((321 & 331 & 341 & 350 )

[مضاد حيوي]

بارك الله فيك اخوي طالب متفائل وعسى الله يسهل عليك الامتحانات مثل ما سهلت علينا تقارير الدورات

بأنتظار بقية تقريرك عن 321

موفق

[saad salman]

اخوي طالب متفائل الله يوفقك ويجزاك خير نبي تقرير عن 331 المادة شكلها صعبه وطويله

[be smile]

جزاك الله خير ووفقك لما تتمناه

[الإمبراطورة]

طآلب مُتفآئِل

جزآك الله ألف خير

على جُهودك المُبذولة,,

كتب الله أجرك..وجُزيت الجنة,,

ألف تحية وشُكر,,
بالتوفيق..
:)

[فواز الجابري]

طولت الغيبه يا صاحبي عسى المانع خير يارب ........

[طالب متفائل]

السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
أسعد الله مسائك / صباحكم بالخيرات
أكرر أسفي لسبب تأخري الخارج عن أرادتي ولكن على وشك ادراجي للتقرير الاخير خلال الساعتان القادمتان بأذن الله

تقبلو خالص تحياتي

[فواز الجابري]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة طالب متفائل السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته أسعد الله مسائك / صباحكم بالخيرات أكرر أسفي لسبب تأخري الخارج عن أرادتي ولكن على وشك ادراجي للتقرير الاخير خلال الساعتان القادمتان بأذن الله تقبلو خالص تحياتي

فداك التأخير

[طالب متفائل]

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

التقرير النهائي لمادة مقدمة في اللغويات 321 عند الأستاذ محمود الصبحي

الفصل الرابع

The sounds of language

في صفحة 30
Phonetics
The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics.
هنا مهم تعريف الــ phonetics وهو علم دراسة خصائص أصوات اللغة
وهو الذي محدد باللون الأزرق

Our main interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how
speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’. Other areas of study are acoustic
phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves
in the air, and auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) which deals with
the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.

Voiced and voiceless sounds

هنا فقط نقراء الشرح ونعرف أن مخارج الأصوات هما نوعان
النوع الأول غير صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عند تمدد واتساع الأوتار الصوتيه ويحدث هذا بسس مرور الهواء من الرئتين بدون أن يتعرضة شي مثل حرف s & f

النوع الثاني صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عندما تنكمش الأوتار مع بعضها ويدفعها الهواء الخارج من الرئتين بشكل متكرر وبهذا يحدث اهتزاز متكرر في الأوتار مثل حرف z & v

ويوجد طريقه نضع رأس الأصبع على وسط الحنجره وننطق حرف الــ z نلاحظ ارتجاج بالاحبال الصوتيه
اما في حرب الـــ s نلاحظ لا يوجد اي ارتجاج

بطريقة الأصبع نعرف اي حرف هل هو صوتي ام غير صوتي

In articulatory phonetics, we investigate how speech sounds are produced using
the fairly complex oral equipment we have. We start with the air pushed out by
the lungs up through the trachea (or ‘windpipe’) to the larynx. Inside the larynx
are your vocal cords, which take two basic positions.
1 When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between
them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless.
2 When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly
pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds
produced in this way are described as voiced.
The distinction can be felt physically if you place a fingertip gently on the top
of your ‘Adam’s apple’ (i.e. that part of your larynx you can feel in your neck
below your chin), then produce sounds such as Z-Z-Z-Z or V-V-V-V. Because
these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some vibration. Keeping
your fingertip in the same position, now make the sounds S-S-S-S or F-F-F-F.
Because these are voiceless sounds, there should be no vibration. Another trick
is to put a finger in each ear, not too far, and produce the voiced sounds (e.g.
Z-Z-Z-Z) to hear and feel some vibration, whereas no vibration will be heard
or felt if you make voiceless sounds (e.g. S-S-S-S) in the same way.

Place of articulation
اماكن النطق او مكان خروج الصوت
فقط قراء لنا العنوان دون التفاصيل ولكن نعرف انه لابد لنا معرفه أماكن النطف بالفم او بالتجويف حتى نعرف كيفية نطق الحروف الساكنه
Once the air has passed through the larynx, it comes up and out through the
mouth and/or the nose. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue
and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral
cavity through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds
are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location
inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place.
What we need is a slice of head. If you crack a head right down the middle,
you will be able to see which parts of the oral cavity are crucially involved
in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of most

اما في صفحة 31 يوجد رسمة لإماكن نطق الحروف وركز الاستاذ على كل منطقة وما هي الحروف التي تنطق في كل مكان . نبداء بالمكان الاول وهو

Bilabials

These are sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (= labia).
التعريف مهم وركز عليه الأستاذ
ومعناه : وهي الأصوات التي تخرج وتتكون من الشفتين العلياء والسفلى وهي اربعه حروف p&b&m&w
ونلاحظ بعضها صوتي والأخر غير صوتي مثل p

The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are
represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are
voiced.We can also describe the [w] sound found at the beginning of way, walk
and world as a bilabial.

Labiodentals
These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip.

ايضا مهم التعريف وهي الاصوات التي تخرج بأستخدام الأسنان العليا والشفة السفليه وهما حرفان فقط حرف الــ f وهو غير صوتي وحرف مثل كلمه fat
والحرف الثاني هو حرف الــ v وهو حرف صوتي مثل كلمة vat

The initial
sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save
are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless,
and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound in the word cough, and
the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced
as [f].

صفحة 23 عنوان Dentals

These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.
التعريف ايضا مهم جداً
وهو الأصوات التي تتكون في طرف اللسان خلف الأسنان الاماميه العليا
The
initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are both voiceless dentals. The
symbol used for this sound is [θ], usually referred to as ‘theta’. It is the symbol
you would use for the first and last sounds in the phrase three teeth.
The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð], usually called ‘eth’. This
اي يوجد في بدايه الكلمه مثل thin = ويرمز لها بالرمز θ
وايضا يوجد في اخر الكلمه مثل bath ويرمز لها بالرمز ð
ولكن لا بد لنا من انه يمكن ان تاتي هذه القاعده حتى في وسط الكلمه مثل كلمه father

sound is found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words like
the, there, then and thus. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and
the final sound of bathe.
The term ‘interdentals’ is sometimes used for these consonants when they
are pronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter) the upper and lower teeth.

Alveolars
These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge,
which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth.

يقصد هي الاصوات التي تتكون من الجزء الأمامي من اللسان مع حد اللثه
اما ما في اللون الازرق فهو مهم وركز عليه وهو بمثابه زبدة التعريف

اما حدد الاحرف في هذه القاعده فهي سبعه أحرف وهم t&d&s&z&n&l&r نلاحظ كل هذه الاحرف مكانها واحد
The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for
these sounds are easy to remember – [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s]
are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced.
It may be clear that the final sounds of the words bus and buzz have to be
[s] and [z] respectively, but what about the final sound of the word raise? The
spelling is misleading because the final sound in this word is voiced and so must
be represented by [z]. Notice also that despite the different spelling of knot and
not, both of these words are pronounced with [n] as the initial sound.
Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap
and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write.

Palatals
يقصد بها الحنك
If you feel back behind the alveolar ridge, you should find a hard part in the
roof of your mouth. This is called the hard palate or just the palate. Sounds
which are produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (or alveopalatals).
Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and
child, which are both voiceless. The sh sound is represented as [ʃ] and the ch
sound is represented as [tʃ]. So, the word shoe-brush begins and ends with the
voiceless palatal sound [ʃ] and the word church begins and ends with the other
voiceless palatal sound [tʃ].
One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ ], is not very common
in English, but can be found as the middle consonant sound inwords like treasure
and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced palatal is [d ], which
is the initial sound in words like joke and gem. The word judge and the name
اي يمكن ان تكون الــ ch في البدايه او في النهايه مثل الامثله السابقه


Velars
وهي الأصوات التي تخرج من خلف اللسان مقابل اللهاه وهما حرفان فقط k&g
Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you will find
a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the velum. Sounds produced with
the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a voiceless
velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in kid and
kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold. Despite the variety in spelling,
this [k] sound is both the initial and final sound in the words cook, kick and coke.
The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give
is represented by [g]. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and,
despite the spelling, plague.
The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and
thereby produce another voiced velar which is represented by the symbol [ŋ],
typically referred to as ‘angma’. In written English, this sound is normally
spelled as the two letters ‘ng’. So, the [ŋ] sound is at the end of sing, sang and
despite the spelling, tongue. It occurs twice in the form ringing. Be careful not
to be misled by the spelling of a word like bang – it ends with the [ŋ] sound
only. There is no [g] sound in this word.

Glottals
There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other
parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and
house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in who and whose. This sound
is usually described as a voiceless glottal. The ‘glottis’ is the space between
the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the production of
other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of
the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h].

Charting consonant sounds
هنا لم يقراء هذا النص ولكن في صفحه 34 جدول لكل ما ذكرنا ولكن بشكل جدول وطريقه النطق

Having described in some detail the place of articulation of English consonant
sounds, we can summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart.
Along the top of the chart are the different labels for places of articulation and,
under each, the labels −V (= voiceless) and +V (= voiced). Also included in
this chart, on the left-hand side, is a set of terms used to describe ‘manner of
articulation’ which we will discuss in the

Limitations of the chart
فقط قراء العنوان وترجمة بأنه أسلوب النطق
This chart is far from complete. It contains the majority of consonant sounds
used in the basic deion of English pronunciation. There are, however,
several differences between this basic set of symbols and the much more comprehensive
chart produced by the International Phonetic Association (IPA). The
most obvious difference is in the range of sounds covered.
We would go to an IPA chart for a deion of the sounds of all languages.
It includes, for example, symbols for the velar fricative sound you may have
heard in the German pronunciation of the ch part of Bach or Achtung. It also
includes sounds made with the back of the tongue and the uvula (at the end of
the velum) which represents the r parts of the French pronunciation of rouge
and lettre. Uvular sounds also occur in many native languages of north and
south America. Other non-English sounds such as pharyngeals (produced in the
pharynx) occur in languages such as Arabic. There are many other consonant
sounds in the languages of the world.
Another way in which the chart is incomplete is the single entry covering
r sounds in English. There can be a lot of variation among speakers
in the pronunciation of the initial sound in raw and red, the medial sound
in very, and the final sound in hour and air. Different symbols (e.g. [ɹ],
[]) may be encountered in tranions where the different r sounds are
distinguished.
Finally, in some phonetic deions, there are different symbols for a few
of the sounds represented here. These alternatives are [ˇs] for [ʃ], [ˇz] for [ ], [ˇc]
for [tʃ], [ ] for [d ] and [y] for [j]. For a fuller discussion of the use of these
symbols, see Ladefoged

Manner of articulation
طريقة أخراج الاصوات :
للتفريق بين الاصوات لابد علينا أن نعرف طريقة اخراج او اصدار الاصوات وهي التي توضح المكان الذي يخرج منه الاصوات

So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where
they are articulated. We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how
they are articulated. Such a deion is necessary if we want to be able
to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we
have placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s]
are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their
manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound
is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called
fricatives.

Stops
Of the sounds we have already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all
produced by some form of ‘stopping’ of the airstream (very briefly) then letting
it go abruptly. This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping
effect on the airstream, is called a stop (or a ‘plosive’).Afull deion of
the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop.
In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when
it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced
stops.
التعريف مهم جدا وهو الذي باللون الازرق تعريف الــ Stops



Fricatives
الاصوات الاحتكاكيه
وهي تصدر بسد مجرى الهواء وتركة يندفع من خلال الفتحة الضيقة The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ],
[ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [] involves almost blocking the airstream and having the air
push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of
friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put
your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s]
in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out.
The usual pronunciation of the word fish begins and ends with the voiceless
fricatives [f] and [


Affricates
If you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release
which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [tʃ] and
[d]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap
and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricate [tʃ], and in the second,
a voiced affricate [d].
نلاحظ كيفيه نطق الــjeep & cheap كأنه نطق واحد علماً أنهم يختلفون بالسبيلينق


Nasals
Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from
entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream
is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n], and [ŋ], the sounds
are described as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning,
knitting and name begin and end with nasals.
تسمى بالاصوات الانفيه فهي تصدر عندما نخفض اللهاة ويسمح بمرور الهواء للخروج من خلال الأنف وهي كما حددناها m,n & ŋ

Liquids
مر الأستاذ عليها بشكل سريع جدا
The initial sounds in
led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced.
The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the airstream
flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with
the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed
with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.


Glides
The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur
at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced
with the tongue in motion (or ‘gliding’) to or from the position of a vowel and
are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximants.
The sound [h], as in Hi or hello, is voiceless and can be classified as a glide
because of the way it combines with other sounds. In some deions, it is
treated as a fricative.

يتبع لطول التقرير

[طالب متفائل]

بسم الله نبداء
صفحه 37

The glottal stop and the flap
There are two common terms used to describe ways of pronouncing consonants
which are not included in the chart presented earlier.
The glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the space
between the vocal cords (the glottis) is closed completely (very briefly), then
released. Try saying the expression Oh oh. Between the first Oh and the second
oh, we typically produce a glottal stop. Some people do it in the middle
of Uh-uh (meaning ‘no’), and others put one in place of t when they pronounce
Batman quickly. You can also produce a glottal stop if you try to say
the words butter or bottle without pronouncing the -tt- part in the middle. This
sound is considered to be characteristic of Cockney (London) speech. (Try saying
the name Harry Potter as if it didn’t have the H or the tt.) You will also
hear glottal stops in the pronunciation of some Scottish speakers and also New
Yorkers.
If, however, you are an American English speaker who pronounces the word
butter in a way that is close to ‘budder’, then you are making a flap. It is
represented by [D] or sometimes [ɾ]. This sound is produced by the tongue
tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly. Many American English speakers have a
tendency to ‘flap’ the [t] and [d] consonants between vowels so that, in casual
speech, the pairs latter and ladder, writer and rider, l and medal do not
have distinct middle consonants. They all have flaps. The student who was told
about the importance of Plato in class and wrote it in his notes as play-dough
was clearly a victim of a misinterpreted flap.
This rather lengthy list of the phonetic features of English consonant sounds
is not presented as a challenge to your ability to memorize a lot of terminology
and symbols. It is presented as an illustration of how a thorough
deion of the physical aspects of speech production will allow us to
characterize the sounds of spoken English, independently of the vagaries of
spelling found in written English. There are, however some sounds that we
have not yet investigated. These are the types of sounds known as vowels and
diphthongs.


Vowels
While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in
the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flowof air. They
are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which
the tongue influences the ‘shape’ through which the airflow must pass. To talk
about a place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth as having a
front versus a back and a high versus a low area. Thus, in the pronunciation of
heat and hit, we talk about ‘high, front’ vowels because the sound is made with
the front part of the tongue in a raised position.
In contrast, the vowel sound in hat is produced with the tongue in a lower
position and the sound in hot can be described as a ‘low, back’ vowel. The
next time you’re facing the bathroom mirror, try saying the words heat, hit, hat,
hot. For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for the last two,
your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open wider. (You may
also notice, the next time you’re getting some, that the sounds of relaxation and
pleasure typically contain lower vowels.)
The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English (e.g. ‘high front’)
is usually based on their position in a chart, like the one shown here, which
provides a means of classifying the most common vowel sounds. Following the
chart is a list of the sounds with some examples of familiar words that, for a
lot of American English speakers, most of the time, contain those sounds. The
list of examples goes from a high front vowel through to a low back vowel and
ends with three diphthongs.

* هذه القاعدة ركز عليها الأستاذ كثيراُ
وراح اختصر كل الكلام اللي مكتوب فوق بأن في أسفل صفحه 38 يوجد كلمات ثم حرف بين قوسين فمضلا نأخذ الاول
eat, key, see = i الحرف i معناته كأني انطق الكلمه بهذا الحرف فمثلا see تكتب هكذا /sin/
وهكذا في بقية الكلمات ومهم جداُ ان نعرف كيف تكتب بأستخدام هذه الطريقه وتوجد كل كلمه في القاموس طريقه كتابة الاصوات الحركيه


Diphthongs
The last three symbols in the list above contain two sounds. These ‘combined’
vowel sounds are called diphthongs.
الاصوات المركبه من صوتين حركيين , وهي تبداء بصوت حركي وتنتهي بصوت منزلق اخر
Note that in each case they begin with a
vowel sound and end with the glides [j] or [w]. In pronouncing the majority of
single vowel sounds, our vocal organs assume one position (very briefly), but
in pronouncing diphthongs, we move from one vocalic position to another as
we produce the sound.
This process of diphthongization can actually happen with a wide range of
vowel sounds and is more common in some varieties of English (e.g. Southern
British) than in others. Most American English speakers pronounce the word
say as [sej], with a diphthong rather than a single vowel. You will also hear
common pronouns such as we [wij] and they [ðej] diphthongized. If you try
to pronounce the consonants and diphthongs in the following tranion,
you should recognize a traditional speech-training exercise: [haw naw brawn
kaw].


Subtle individual variation
لم يقرائها ابد ليست مهمه
Vowel sounds are notorious for varying between one variety of English and the
next, often being a key element in what we recognize as different accents. So,
you may find that some of the words offered in the earlier lists as examples are
not spoken in your neighborhood with the vowel sounds exactly as listed. Also,
some of the sound distinctions shown here may not even be used regularly in
your own speech. It may be, for example, that you make no distinction between
the vowels in the words caught and cot and use [a] in both. In some deions,
the vowel sound in cot is represented as [ɑ].
Or, you may not make a significant distinction between the central vowels [ə]
and []. If not, then just use the symbol [ə], called ‘schwa’. In fact, in casual
speech, we all use schwa more than any other single sound. It is the unstressed
vowel (underlined) in the everyday use of words such as afford, collapse, oven,
photograph, wanted, and in those very common words a and the.
There are many other variations in the actual physical articulation of the
sounds we have considered here. The more we focus on the subtle differences
of the actual articulation of each sound, the more likely we are to find ourselves
describing the pronunciation of small groups or even individual speakers. Such
subtle differences enable us to identify individual voices and recognize people
we know as soon as they speak. But those differences don’t help us understand
how we are able to work out what total strangers with unfamiliar voices
are saying. We are clearly able to disregard all the subtle individual variation
in the phonetic detail of voices and recognize each underlying sound type as
part of a word with a particular meaning. To make sense of how we do that,


الدرس الخامس وهو من أهم الدروس وسوف اذكر كل ما هو مهم في نهاية التقرير
صفحة 43
The sound patterns of language
In the preceding chapter, we investigated the physical production of speech
sounds in terms of the articulatory mechanisms of the human vocal tract. That
investigationwas possible because of some rather amazing facts about the nature
of language. When we considered the human vocal tract, we didn’t have to
specify whether we were talking about a fairly large person, over six feet tall,
weighing over 200 pounds, or about a rather small person, about five feet tall,
weighing less than 100 pounds. Yet those two physically different individuals
would inevitably have physically different vocal tracts, in terms of size and
shape. In a sense, every individual has a physically different vocal tract. Consequently,
in purely physical terms, every individual will pronounce sounds
differently. There are, then, potentially millions of physically different ways of
saying the simple word me.
In addition, each individual will not pronounce the word me in a physically
identical manner on every occasion. Obvious differences occur when that individual
is shouting, is suffering from a bad cold or is asking for a sixth martini.
Given this vast range of potential differences in the actual physical production of
a speech sound, how do we manage consistently to recognize all those versions
of me as the form [mi], and not [ni] or [si] or [ma] or [mo] or something else
entirely? The
كله كلام حشو


Phonology
Phonology is essentially the deion of the systems and patterns of speech
sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every speaker
of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language.
Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the abstract
مهم جداُ تعريف الــ Phonology
فقط علينا بالتعريف اما الذي يوجد في صفحه 44 على الصفحه مو مهم


Phonemes
Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a
phoneme. When we considered the basis of alphabetic writing in chapter 3, we
were actually working with the concept of the phoneme as the single sound type
which came to be represented by a single written symbol. It is in this sense that
the phoneme /t/ is described as a sound type, of which all the different spoken
versions of [t] are tokens. Note that slash marks are conventionally used to
indicate a phoneme, /t/, an abstract segment, as opposed to the square brackets,
as in [t], used for each phonetic or physically produced segment.
An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively.We know
there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis
of the contrast in meaning between the words fat and vat, or fine and vine. This
contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes
that exist in a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and
there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes.
The basic phonemes of English are listed in the consonant and vowel charts in
chapter 4.
The technical terms used in creating those charts can be considered ‘features’
that distinguish each phoneme from the next. If the feature is present, we mark
it with a plus sign (+) and if it’s not present, we use a minus sign (−). Thus /p/
التعريف مهم جدا وركز عليها اكثر من مره
اما في اعلى صفحه 45 غير مهمه


Phones and allophones
While the phoneme is the abstract unit or sound type (‘in the mind’), there are
many different versions of that sound type regularly produced in actual speech
(‘in the mouth’).We can describe those different versions as phones. Phones are
phonetic units and appear in square brackets. When we have a group of several
phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we add the prefix ‘allo-’
(=one of a closely related set) and refer to them as allophones of that phoneme.
For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a
stronger puff of air than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. If you
put the back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star,
you should be able to feel some physical evidence of aspiration (the puff of
air) accompanying the [t] sound at the beginning of tar (but not in star). This
aspirated version is represented more precisely as [th]. That’s one phone. In the
last chapter, we noted that the [t] sound between vowels in a word like writer
often becomes a flap, which we can represent as [D]. That’s another phone. In
the pronunciation of a word like eighth (/etθ/), the influence of the final dental
[θ] sound causes a dental articulation of the [t] sound. This can be represented
more precisely as [t]. That’s yet another phone. There are even more variations
of this sound which, like [th], [D], and [t], can be represented in a more precise
way in a detailed, or narrow phonetic tranion. Because these variations are
all part of one set of phones, they are typically referred to as allophones of the
phoneme /t/.
The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting
one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning (as
well as a different pronunciation), but substituting allophones only results in a
different (and perhaps unusual) pronunciation of the same word.

في صفحه 46Let’s look at another quick example, using a vowel sound. In English, there is
a subtle difference in the pronunciation of /i/ in the words seed and seen. In the
second word, the effect of the nasal consonant [n] makes the [i] sound nasalized.
We can represent this nasalization with a small mark (˜), called ‘tilde’, over the
symbol [˜i] in a narrow phonetic tranion. So, there are at least two phones,
[i] and [˜i], used to realize the single phoneme. They are both allophones of /i/
in English.
It is possible, of course, for two languages to have the same pair of phonetic
segments, but to treat them differently. In English, the effect of nasalization
on a vowel is treated as allophonic variation because the nasalized
version is not meaningfully contrastive. Whether we say [sin] or [s˜in], people
will only recognize one word seen. In French, however, the pronunciation
[mε] is used for one word mets (‘dish’) and the pronunciation [m˜ ε] is used
for another word main (‘hand’). Also, [so] for the word seau (‘pail’) contrasts
with [s˜o] for the word son (‘sound’). Clearly, in these cases, the distinction is
phonemic.
فقط نعرف كيف تكتب رموزها


Minimal pairs and sets
Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words.
When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast
in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described
as a minimal pair. More accurately, they would be classified as a minimal pair
in the phonology of English. (Arabic, for example, does not have this contrast
between /p/ and /b/.) Other examples of English minimal pairs are fan–van,
bet–bat, site–side. Such pairs have traditionally been used in the teaching and
testing of English as a second or foreign language to help students develop
the ability to understand the contrast in meaning based on the minimal sound
contrast.
When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by
changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word), then we have
a minimal set. For example, one minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of
English could include feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot, and another minimal set
based on consonant phonemes could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig.

بختصار مجموعات وثنائيات المفردات هي كلمتين مثل bat & pat متطابقتين في الشكل باستثناء الاختلاف في فوينم واحد يعني في حرف واحد فقط

المجموعات :
هي مجموعة كلمات تختلف بتغير فوينم واحد في نفس الوضع مثل : feat & fit & fat & fate & foot وغيرها


Phonotactics
This type of exercise involving minimal sets also allows us to see that there are
definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language. In
English, the minimal set we have just listed does not include forms such as lig
or vig. According to the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could
be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of

المطلوب التعريف ويضا له صيغة تعريف أخرى وهي
Phonotactics = constraints on the permissible combination of sounds in a language


Syllables and clusters
A syllable must contain a vowel (or vowel-like) sound. The most common type
of syllable in language also has a consonant (C) before the vowel (V) and is
typically represented as CV. Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are
the onset (one or more consonants) and the rhyme. The rhyme (sometimes
written as ‘rime’) consists of a vowel, which is treated as the nucleus, plus any
following consonant(s), described as the coda.
Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda. They are
known as ‘open’ syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup,
at or hat, they are called ‘closed’ syllables. The basic structure of the kind of
syllable found in English words like green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC),
ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV), not (CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC),
I (V), am (VC) is shown in the accompanying diagram.

as onset in the word stop, and as coda in the word post. There are many CC
onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick,
twin, flat and throw. Note that liquids (/l/, /r/) and a glide (/w/) are being used
in second position.
English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in thewords stress and splat,
consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The phonotactics of these larger
onset consonant clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must
always be /s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and then one of
these liquids or glides (/l/, /r/, /w/). You can check if this deion is adequate
for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square. Does the
deion also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? How
about /εk-sklejm/? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being
described, not the beginning of the word.
It is quite unusual for languages to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed,
the syllable structure of many languages (e.g. Japanese) is predominantly CV. It
is also noticeable in English that large consonant clusters are frequently reduced
in casual conversational speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a
word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of
co-articulation effects.

اللي في الازرق يقول اذا اتت ccc ثلاثه مرات لابد من الكلمه ان تبداء بحرف s

ملاحظه الــ c قبل الــ v تكون onset
الــ c بعد الـــ v تكون coda


Co-articulation effects
لم يقرائها حتى ليست مهمه
In much of the preceding discussion, we have been describing speech sounds in
syllables and words as if they are always pronounced carefully and deliberately,
almost in slow motion. Speech isn’t normally like that. Mostly our talk is fast
and spontaneous, and it requires our articulators to move from one sound to the
next without stopping. The process of making one sound almost at the same
time as the next sound is called co-articulation. There are two well-known
co-articulation effects, described as assimilation and elision.


Assimilation
ايضاً لم يقرئها وليست مهمه When two sound segments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is
taken or ‘copied’ by the other, the process is known as assimilation. If we think
of the physical production of speech,we realize that this regular process happens
simply because it’s quicker, easier and more efficient for our articulators as they
do their job. In isolation, we would typically pronounce [] and [æ] without any
nasal quality at all. However, when we say words like pin and pan in everyday
speech, the anticipation of forming the final nasal consonant will make it easier
to go into the nasalized articulation in advance and consequently the vowel
sounds in these words will be, in more precise tranion, [˜] and [æ˜]. This
is a very regular feature of English speakers’ pronunciation. It is so regular, in


fact, that a phonological rule can be stated in the following way: “Any vowel
becomes nasal whenever it immediately precedes a nasal.”
This type of assimilation process occurs in a variety of different contexts. By
itself, the word can may be pronounced as [kæn], but, when we say I can go, the
influence of the following velar [g] will almost certainly make the preceding
nasal sound come out as [ŋ] (the velar nasal) rather than [n] (the alveolar nasal).
The most commonly observed conversational version of the phrase is [ajkəŋgo].
Notice that the vowel in can has also changed to schwa [ə] from the isolatedword
version [æ]. In many words spoken carefully, the vowel receives stress,
but in the course of ordinary everyday talk, that vowel may no longer receive
any stress and naturally reduce to schwa. We may, for example, pronounce and
as [ænd] by itself, but in the normal use of the phrase you and me, we usually
say [ən], as in [yuənmi].

Elision
ايضا لم يقرئها In the last example, illustrating the normal pronunciation of you and me, the
[d] sound of the word and was not included in the tranion. That’s because
it isn’t usually pronounced in this phrase. In the environment of a preceding
nasal [n] and a following nasal [m], we simply don’t devote speech energy to
including the stop sound [d]. This isn’t laziness, it’s efficiency. There is also
typically no [d] sound included in the everyday pronunciation of a word like
friendship [frεnʃp]. This process of not pronouncing a sound segment that
might be present in the deliberately careful pronunciation of a word in isolation
is described as elision. In consonant clusters, especially in coda position, /t/ is
a common casualty in this process, as in the typical pronunciation [æspεks] for
aspects, or in [himəsbi] for the phrase he must be.We can, of course, slowly and
deliberately pronounce each part of the phrase we asked him, but the process
of elision in casual conversation is likely to produce [wiæstəm]. Vowels also
disappear, as in [εvri] for every, [ntrst] for interest, [kæbnət] for cabinet, and
[spowz] for suppose.

Normal speech
ايضا ليست مهمهThese two processes of assimilation and elision occur in everyone’s normal
speech and should not be regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness in
speaking. In fact, consistently avoiding the regular patterns of assimilation and
elision used in a language would result in extremely artificial-sounding talk.
The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set
of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an
understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlie the actual use of
sounds in language.

يتبع لطول التقرير

[nuha]

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