The Easy Grammar الحلقة الرابعة

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Two-Word Verbs The term two-word verb refers to a verb and a preposition which together have a special meaning. Two-word verbs are common in informal English. Here is a list of some of these verbs. bring up To rear children; to mention a topic. call up To call on the telephone. clean up To make clean and orderly. do over To do again. drop off To leave something/ someone at a place. fill out To complete an official form. get on To enter an airplane, car, etc. give back To return an item to someone. go over To review or check carefully. hand in To submit an assignment or report. hang up To conclude a telephone conversation; to put clothes on a hanger or hook. look over To review or check carefully. look up To look for information in a reference book. pick up To get someone in a car (e.g., in a car); to take in one’s hand. put away To remove to a proper place. put on To put clothes on one’s body. put out To extinguish a cigarette, fire, etc. show up To appear, come. take off To remove clothing; to leave on a trip. take out To take someone on a date; to remove. think over To consider carefully. try on To put on clothing to see if it fits. turn in To submit an assignment, report; to go to bed. turn off To stop a machine, light, faucet. turn on To activate a machine, light, faucet. turn out To extinguish a light. turn up To increase volume or intensity. There are two categories of two-word verbs: 1.) Separable: --I handed my paper in. In separable two-word verbs, a noun or pronoun may come between the verb and preposition. 2.) Non separable: --She gets off the train. With this kind of verb, a noun or pronoun must follow the preposition. Using Gerunds A gerund is the -ing form of the verb used as a noun. Like nouns, gerunds can be subjects or objects: SUBJECT GERUND: --Playing golf is fun. OBJECT GERUND: --We're used to having a lot of fun. In the second example, the gerund having is the object of the preposition to. This pattern is fairly frequent in English. By is often used with gerunds to describe how something is done: --By calling the office, you'll be able to know what's going on. Here are a number of common verbs followed by gerunds: finish--They finished working at 6 p.m. stop--I stopped calling you at midnight. quit--They quit eating for 24 hours. avoid--You can't avoid answering the question. keep (on)--They will keep on studying. enjoy--My neighbor enjoys walking his dog. appreciate--She would appreciate hearing from you. mind--Do they mind selling their car? NOTE: Go is followed by a gerund in certain idiomatic expressions related to sports and physical activities. --Did they go shopping yesterday? --They went sailing at the lake. --We are going skiing this winter in the Rockies. Formation of -Ing Verbs There are certain rules for forming -ing verbs just as there are for the -ed forms. 1. VERBS THAT END IN -E Drop the -e and add -ing: hope-->hoping date-->dating 2. VERBS THAT END IN -Y If -y is preceded by a vowel, keep the -y: buy-->buying If -y is preceded by a consonant, keep the -y: try-->trying study-->studying 3. VERBS THAT END IN -IE Change the -ie to -y: die-->dying lie-->lying 4. VERBS THAT END IN TWO CONSONANTS Just add the -ing ending: start-->starting Verbs that end in a vowel and a consonant follow special rules. FOR ONE-SYLLABLE VERBS: 1 vowel-->2 consonants (stop--> stopping) 2 vowels-->1 consonant (dream--> dreaming) FOR TWO-SYLLABLE VERBS: 1st syllable stressed-->1 consonant (listening) 2nd syllable stressed-->2 consonants (preferring) Using A Few, Few, A Little, and Little A few and few are used with plural count nouns: --a few friends, few ideas, a few things to do, etc. A little and little are used with noncount nouns: --little money, a little rain, a little wind, etc. NOTE: Few and little give a negative idea, conveying the notion that something is largely absent: --They have very little money. --We have few options remaining. NOTE: A few and a little give a positive idea, indicating that something exists or is present: --I have a little free time today. --Do you have a few moments? Placement of Adjectives and Adverbs Adjectives and adverbs are invariable in English. Adjectives always come in front of the noun they modify. Adverbs usually come after the verb they modify. ADJECTIVES: a good book an excellent dinner a fine wine a charming person a hot day an unreasonable person ADVERBS: --This newspaper is published frequently. --The Immigration Agent is speaking quickly. Indefinite and Definite Articles There is no need to worry about whether a noun is masculine, feminine, or neuter in English. Normally, a noun is preceded by a definite article (THE) or an indefinite article (A, AN) as follows: DEFINITE ARTICLE the tourist the area the card the hotel the restaurant the people the signs INDEFINITE ARTICLE a tourist an area a card a hotel a restaurant some people some signs Note that definite articles refer to something specific, while indefinite articles refer to something non-specific. Use an in front of words beginning with vowels and some with plural nouns. Asking Questions In English, you can ask simple yes/no questions by either inverting the subject and verb or by using rising intonation: --We can change money here. (simple, declarative statement) --Can we change money here? (question with verb first) --We can change money here? (question with rising intonation) NOTE: In the case of the simple present tense, it is necessary to use a form of the verb to do as an auxiliary in making a question: --They like this bank. -->Do they like this bank? --You have a passport. -->Do you have a passport? Contractions You will want to learn how to use contractions as soon as possible. Contractions are used constantly in informal English. Examples of contracted subject/verb forms are: TO BE: I am-->I'm he is-->he's we are-->we're you are-->you're they are-->they're TO HAVE: I have-->I've we have-->we've you have-->you've they have-->they've Contractions are frequently used with compound forms of verbs, especially the progressive or continuous form of the present tense (I'm going. / We're leaving.) and the present perfect forms (I've received the letter. / They've already left.) A later lesson will deal with the compound forms of verbs in greater length. Count And Noncount Nouns Count nouns are nouns that can be counted (e.g., a book, two friends, three cars, etc.). A count noun may be preceded by a or an in the singular; it takes a final -s or -es in the plural. Noncount (or mass) nouns refer to things that cannot be counted (e.g., money, rain, snow, butter, wind, air, clothing, etc.). Noncount nouns are not preceded by a or an and have no plural form. COMMON NONCOUNT NOUNS advice weather equipment news water jewelry information music postage work money luggage Some nouns can be both count and noncount nouns: --We drank some wine. (Noncount) --We ordered three wines. (Count) (It is implicit that three different wines were ordered.) Direct and Indirect Speech In newspapers, magazines, and books, you will often see quoted or direct speech: --They said, "We have no record of this transaction." --He stated, "I don't know what happened." In spoken English, reported or indirect speech will be used instead: --They said that they had no record of this transaction. --He stated that he didn't know what happened. In reported or indirect speech, no quotation marks are used and the subject of the main clause and the dependent clause are the same. Here are some rules for tense usage in indirect speech: 1. If the main verb of the sentence is in the past (said, reported, stated, etc.), the verb in the dependent clause will also be in the past. 2. Here is a chart indicating typical transformations: QUOTED IN-->REPORTED IN simple present-->simple past present progressive-->perfect progressive present perfect-->past perfect simple past-->past perfect future-->conditional EXAMPLES: --I said, "She reads the paper everyday." -->I said she read the paper everyday. --I said, "She is reading the paper everyday." -->I said she was reading the paper.... --I said, "She has read the paper everyday." -->I said she had read the paper.... --I said, "She read the paper everyday." -->I said she had read the paper.... --I said, "She will read the paper everyday." -->I said she would read the paper.... In reported speech, an imperative will change to an infinitive. Furthermore, say will be replaced by a form of tell: --He said, "Show me your passport." -->He told me to show my passport. The Emphatic Form of the Present The third form of the present tense in English is for emphasis. When you use do as an auxiliary in an affirmative sentence, it makes the verb stronger: --Do you speak English or French? --I don't speak French, but I do speak English. --He does understand you, doesn't he?* *Do for emphasis is also used in a sentence with a tag question when you want to be sure you have the right information. Exclamations! Most exclamations in English are preceded by what or how: --What terrible weather! --How awful! What is used much more frequently than how in everyday language. Exclamations can be as brief as one or two words (What a mess!) or as long as a sentence: --What a way to end my vacation! NOTE: Don't forget that what and how are most frequently used in questions: --What did you say? --How much does it cost? Expectation and Should In a previous section, you learned how should can be used to express advisability: --The front desk clerk should give us a discount. Another way should can be used is in expressions of expectation: --They have been working hard. They should do well. (In this example, should means will probably.) The past form (should have) means that the speaker expected something that did not happen: --I haven't heard anything from them. They should have called by now Expressing Necessity: Must/Have To/Have Got To Must and have to both express necessity: --You must fill out this form. --You have to pick up Mr. Roberts. In some situations, must is more urgent or stronger than have to: --You must be here for your appointment on time. I have a busy schedule today. --You have to take another course next year. The expression have got to is similar in meaning to must and have to but is reserved for spoken English: --I have got to study more. (i.e., I must study more.) Expressing Opposition Here are some ways to show opposition when the result is the opposite of what you might expect: 1. ADVERB CLAUSES even though although though --Even though it was hot, we wore our coats. 2. CONJUNCTIONS but ... anyway but ... still yet ... still --It was cold, but we still went swimming. 3. PREPOSITIONS despite in spite of --They went skiing despite the warm temperatures. Here are words that show direct opposition: 1. ADVERB CLAUSES whereas while --Paul is tall, whereas Richard is short. --While Sue is industrious, Marie is lazy. 2. CONJUNCTION but --The travel agent is tired, but she is still working. 3. TRANSITIONS however on the other hand --Carole is beautiful, however, she doesn't dress very well. Whereas and while are used to show direct opposition; it does not make any difference which idea comes first and which second; the same rule applies for but / however / on the other hand. Forms of Other Forms of other are used as either adjectives or pronouns: SINGULAR: another book (is) another is PLURAL: other books (are) others (are) SINGULAR: the other book (is) the other (is) PLURAL: the other books (are) the others (are) Note that a final -s is used only for a plural pronoun (others). Another means one more in addition to the one(s) already mentioned. Other/others (without the) refer to several more in addition to the one(s) already mentioned. The other(s) has a different meaning (all that remains from a given number or specific group): --I have three apartments. Two are mine. The other is yours.

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The Forms of "To Do" TO DO: I do do I? you do do you? she does does she? we do do we? they do do they? The Future Progressive Tense The future progressive tense refers to an action that will be underway at a particular time in the future. When used in conjunction with when + a present tense, the future progressive action will precede the present tense in time and may continue after it: --The clerk will be weighing the bananas when you return. TENSE FORMATION (Future Progressive) Simply put the helping verb (a form of to be) into the future tense and use the -ing form of the main verb: --We buy groceries. -->We will be buying groceries. If.... Then Constructions A frequent pattern in English is the use of constructions with if followed by a clause of result (then, either stated or implied): --If you take Interstate 85, (then) you'll get there faster. In this kind of sentence the if clause introduces a hypothetical statement. When the if clause is in the present tense, the result (then) clause is in the future: --If it becomes (present) any hotter, we'll have to go (future) swimming. --I'll send (future) you some money, if you need it (present). Now you have seen the if (present tense), then (future tense) pattern. Here are two other sequences: -- If (past tense), then (conditional tense) -- If (past perfect), then (past conditional) --If I had (past) more time, I would read (conditional) this book. --They would have won (past conditional) the race, if they had run (past perfect) faster. NOTE: When you use the verb to be after if, were not was is the preferred form: --If he were younger, he would ski every day. Imperatives (The Command Form) It is simple to use the imperative or command form in English. When a command is directed at someone else, use the you form of the simple present tense: --You take the elevator. -->Take the elevator. (Simply drop the subject you.) If the command includes you and others, use the we form: --We take our luggage. -->Let's take the luggage. (Drop the subject we and add let's [let us].) Interrogatives in Dependent Clauses In the dialogue for this chapter, you see: --Do you know where I can cut off the water? (correct) This construction can be troublesome for learners of English, because there is a tendency to make the dependent clause (where I can cut off...) a question as well: --Do you know where can I cut off the water? (incorrect) Both do you know and where can I cut off the water are legitimate questions when used separately. However, when combined in a single sentence the main clause (Do you know...) carries the full weight of the interrogative. Here are some additional examples: --Do you see it? Where is it? -->Do you see where it is? --Do you know when? When does he arrive? -->Do you know when he arrives? Information Questions Many times you will want to ask a question that elicits information, instead of a simple yes/no answer. Information questions will begin with one of the following words: WHO WHERE WHOM WHAT WHOSE WHICH WHY HOW WHEN Who refers to people. It is used as the subject of the question. Whom is used as the object of a verb or preposition. Whose asks questions about possession. Why is used to ask questions about reason. When is used to ask questions about time. Where is used to ask questions about place. What can be used as the subject or object of a question. It refers to things. Which is used instead of what when a question concerns choosing from a definite, known quantity or group. How generally asks about manner. It is often used with much and many. When a form of to be is the main verb in the simple present and simple past, it precedes the subject: --Who is that man? --Where is the airport? --Where are the checks? --What time is it? Irregular Noun Plurals When the final -y is preceded by a consonant, change the -y to -i and add -es: baby-->babies lady-->ladies If a noun ends in -fe or -f, the ending is changed to -ves (except: beliefs, chiefs, roofs, staffs). life-->lives thief-->thieves Add -es to nouns ending in -sh, -ch, -s, -z, and -x. (Exceptions: monarchs, stomachs.) wish-->wishes class-->classes Both the -s and -es spellings are accepted for nouns ending in -o. tomato-->tomatoes hero-->heroes The plural possessive form of these nouns is also irregular. child-->children foot-->feet goose-->geese man-->men tooth-->teeth The plural is the same as the singular for these nouns. deer-->deer fish-->fish sheep-->sheep species-->species The final sound of these plurals is pronounced like the word sees. crisis-->crises thesis-->theses Using May and Might Two other important modal verbs are may and might. The two are used interchangeably in standard American English to express probability or possibility: --You may be wrong. --You might be wrong. --The attorney might be late. --The attorney may be late. The past form is expressed as follows: modal (may/might) + have + past participle --I may/might have left my glasses in the restaurant. NOTE: Must can also be used to express probability: --The plane must be leaving now. Progressive Forms of May and Might THE PAST PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF MAY AND MIGHT ARE FORMED BY ADDING HAVE BEEN + THE -ING FORM OF THE MAIN VERB. --I didn't see them at the hotel. They may have been having dinner. --The mail didn't arrive on time. The mailman might have been having trouble with his car. THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF MAY AND MIGHT ARE FORMED BY ADDING BE + THE -ING FORM OF THE MAIN VERB. --We may be calling you in the morning. --They might be visiting the U.S. this time next year. NOTE: When must means necessity, the past form is had to. When it means probability, the past is must have + past participle. More On the Progressive Tenses Certain categories of verbs are usually not used in any of the progressive tenses. When the verbs below are used in one of the progressive tenses, they usually have a different meaning: --You will be hearing from me. (I will get in touch with you later.) --She is having trouble. (She is experiencing trouble). SENSES MENTAL ACTIVITY hear know taste believe smell think see understand remember mean recognize POSSESSION ATTITUDES possess dislike own seem have appear belong look want like prefer hate need appreciate love Negative Questions In a yes/no question in which the verb is negative, usually a contraction is used: --Doesn't she live with you? The other form, which is not contracted, is considered formal and is rarely used in everyday speech: --Does she not live with you? To form a negative question, make the auxiliary negative by adding not: --Do they cash traveler's checks? --> Don't they (Do they not) cash...? HERE ARE SOME MORE EXAMPLES: --Is Mr. Jones here? -->Isn't Mr. Jones here? --Are you coming? -->Aren't you coming? Negatives The word not is used with do to make a verb negative, as in I don't have any money (don't = do not). No is used as an adjective in front of a noun, as in I have no money. Both of these examples are acceptable ways of expressing the idea that you do not have something. Note these contracted negative forms with do: I don't you don't he, she doesn't they don't we don't Here are some affirmative words and their negative forms in English: AFFIRMATIVES someone, anybody something, anything still ever either... or NEGATIVES no one, nobody nothing no longer never neither... nor Avoid using more than one negative in a clause: --I don't have any money. NOT: I don't have no money. --They don't see anybody. NOT: They don't see nobody. --I didn't do anything. NOT: I didn't do nothing The Relative Pronouns Who/Which/That Who, which and that are relative pronouns. They are usually used in dependent clauses introduced by a main clause: --I tipped the waiter who (that) served us. --We thanked the people who (that) helped us. Note that in the above two examples who and that are substituted for one another. Even though who is more grammatically correct than that in reference to a person or persons, that is heard often in speech. Who is used only for people. That can be used to refer to a person or thing. Which is used only for things: --The car, which we rented, doesn't work The Relative Pronouns Whom/Which/That Follow the same rules for using who(m), which, and that, as you do with other relative pronouns. The only difference is that now these pronouns are functioning as objects: --The movie that we saw last night was terrible. --The movie, which we saw last night, was terrible. For people, you will use either who or whom. Who is usually used instead of whom in colloquial speech, even though it is technically incorrect: --The person who they saw was sick. (informal) --The person whom they saw was sick. (formal) --There's the driver who the police arrested. (informal) --There's the driver whom the police arrested. (formal)

[al-prince]

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[f9009]

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