الحلقة الأولى The Easy Grammar

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Numbers (1-100)
Counting to 100 follows a pattern in English once the basic units are learned:

1 one 11 eleven
2 two 12 twelve
3 three 13 thirteen
4 four 14 fourteen
5 five 15 fifteen
6 six 16 sixteen
7 seven 17 seventeen
8 eight 18 eighteen
9 nine 19 nineteen
10 ten 20 twenty
21 twenty-one 57 fifty-seven
22 twenty-two 60 sixty
30 thirty 68 sixty-eight
33 thirty-three 70 seventy
34 thirty-four 79 seventy-nine
40 forty 80 eighty
45 forty-five 90 ninety
46 forty-six 99 ninety-nine
50 fifty 100 one hundred
Note that to count from 20-99, all you have to do is add a hyphen (-) and the second number: 33 = thirty + (-) + three.
Numbers (101 - 1,000,000)
Here's the system for counting from 100-999:
-- number + hundred + number
(650= six hundred fifty)
1000-99,999:
--number + thousand + number + hundred + number
(7,888 = seven thousand eight hundred eighty-eight)
100,000-999,999:
--number + hundred + thousand + number + hundred + number
(565,332 = five hundred sixty-five thousand three hundred thirty-
two)
NOTE: Follow the same system for numbers exceeding one million.
1,000,000 = one million
1,000,000,000 = one billion

Ordinal Numbers
To form an ordinal number (ordinal numbers put things in order), add the ending -th to the cardinal number.
seven-->seventh
thirteen-->thirteenth
When a cardinal number ends in -y, the -y changes to -ie before adding -th.
twenty-->twentieth
sixty-->sixtieth
Note the following exceptions: first, second, third (sometimes abbreviated as 1st, 2nd, 3rd) and fifth, ninth, twelfth.
twenty-first
forty-third
sixty-fifth
All others are abbreviated as follows: 4th, 5th, 20th, etc.

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Telling Time
In the U.S., time is usually told on the 12, rather than 24-hour clock. Distinctions between morning, afternoon, and evening are made by adding a.m. or p.m. 2 p.m. is therefore two o'clock in the afternoon; 6 a.m. is six o'clock in the morning.
HERE ARE SOME USEFUL EXPRESSIONS RELATED TO TIME:
-- What time is it? - It's 11 p.m.
-- Do you have the time? - Yes, it's 12 noon.
-- What time should I arrive? - Around 3 p.m.
-- How much time will it take? -No more than 20 minutes.
When referring to 12:00 at night, you can say midnight. When referring to 12:00 during the day, you can say noon.
Here are some examples of how to express time in English:
-- If it's 10 you could say either
It's quarter past (after) ten.
OR: It's ten fifteen.
-- If it's 5:30, you could say either
It's half past five.
OR: It's five thirty.
-- If it's 8:45, you could say either
It's quarter till nine.
OR: It's eight forty-five.
For all other times, simply list the hour first, then the number of minutes:
It's 3:25 = It's three twenty-five.
It's 10:35 = It's ten thirty-five
OR: It's twenty-five till eleven.




Active and The Passive Voice

The Passive Voice
In other sections, you have seen verbs used in the active voice. The passive voice is sometimes used in English as well. With the active voice, the agent or subject comes before the verb. With the passive, the subject (either stated or implied) follows the verb and is usually preceded with the word by:
ACTIVE:
--The doctor wrote a preion.
PASSIVE
--The preion was written by the doctor.
NOTE: In the passive, the object of the active verb becomes the subject.
To make the passive, use the appropriate form of the verb to be + past participle. Only transitive verbs are used in the passive:
ACTIVE: Fred helps Jane.
PASSIVE: Jane is helped by Fred.
ACTIVE: He is helping her.
PASSIVE: She is being helped by him.
ACTIVE: He has helped her.
PASSIVE: She has been helped by him.
ACTIVE: He helped her.
PASSIVE: She was helped by him.
ACTIVE: He was helping her.
PASSIVE: She was being helped by him.
ACTIVE: He had helped her.
PASSIVE: She had been helped by him.
ACTIVE: He will help her.
PASSIVE: She will be helped by him.
ACTIVE: He is going to help her.
PASSIVE: She is going to be helped by him.

Usually the by phrase is omitted in a passive sentence. The passive is used mainly when it is not known or not important to know who was responsible for the action:
--The house was built in 1960.
(The by phrase is left out because it is understood that builders
built the house).

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Active and The Passive Voice

The Passive Voice
In other sections, you have seen verbs used in the active voice. The passive voice is sometimes used in English as well. With the active voice, the agent or subject comes before the verb. With the passive, the subject (either stated or implied) follows the verb and is usually preceded with the word by:
ACTIVE:
--The doctor wrote a preion.
PASSIVE
--The preion was written by the doctor.
NOTE: In the passive, the object of the active verb becomes the subject.
To make the passive, use the appropriate form of the verb to be + past participle. Only transitive verbs are used in the passive:
ACTIVE: Fred helps Jane.
PASSIVE: Jane is helped by Fred.
ACTIVE: He is helping her.
PASSIVE: She is being helped by him.
ACTIVE: He has helped her.
PASSIVE: She has been helped by him.
ACTIVE: He helped her.
PASSIVE: She was helped by him.
ACTIVE: He was helping her.
PASSIVE: She was being helped by him.
ACTIVE: He had helped her.
PASSIVE: She had been helped by him.
ACTIVE: He will help her.
PASSIVE: She will be helped by him.
ACTIVE: He is going to help her.
PASSIVE: She is going to be helped by him.

Usually the by phrase is omitted in a passive sentence. The passive is used mainly when it is not known or not important to know who was responsible for the action:
--The house was built in 1960.
(The by phrase is left out because it is understood that builders
built the house).
Adjectives
Using A Few, Few, A Little, and Little
A few and few are used with plural count nouns:
--a few friends, few ideas, a few things to do, etc.
A little and little are used with noncount nouns:
--little money, a little rain, a little wind, etc.
NOTE: Few and little give a negative idea, conveying the notion that something is largely absent:
--They have very little money.
--We have few options remaining.
NOTE: A few and a little give a positive idea, indicating that something exists or is present:
--I have a little free time today.
--Do you have a few moments?

Placement of Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives and adverbs are invariable in English. Adjectives always come in front of the noun they modify. Adverbs usually come after the verb they modify.
ADJECTIVES:
a good book
an excellent dinner
a fine wine
a charming person
a hot day
an unreasonable person
ADVERBS:
--This newspaper is published frequently.
--The Immigration Agent is speaking quickly.

Forms of Other
Forms of other are used as either adjectives or pronouns:
SINGULAR: another book (is)
another is
PLURAL: other books (are)
others (are)

SINGULAR: the other book (is)
the other (is)
PLURAL: the other books (are)
the others (are)
Note that a final -s is used only for a plural pronoun (others). Another means one more in addition to the one(s) already mentioned. Other/others (without the) refer to several more in addition to the one(s) already mentioned. The other(s) has a different meaning (all that remains from a given number or specific group):
--I have three apartments. Two are mine. The other is yours.

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Articles
Indefinite and Definite Articles
There is no need to worry about whether a noun is masculine, feminine, or neuter in English. Normally, a noun is preceded by a definite article (THE) or an indefinite article (A, AN) as follows:
DEFINITE ARTICLE
the tourist
the area
the card
the hotel
the restaurant
the people
the signs

INDEFINITE ARTICLE
a tourist
an area
a card
a hotel
a restaurant
some people
some signs

Note that definite articles refer to something specific, while indefinite articles refer to something non-specific. Use an in front of words beginning with vowels and some with plural nouns.

Using Some and Any
In English the words some and any are used before plural nouns: some money, some dollars, any change, etc.
However, it is often possible to leave out the word some in declarative sentences:
--We have (some) checks.
--Mr. Roberts gives them (some) money.
The word any is usually used in questions and negations to replace some:
--Do you have any change?
--Do you have some change?
--They don't have any friends.
Commands

Imperatives (The Command Form)
It is simple to use the imperative or command form in English. When a command is directed at someone else, use the you form of the simple present tense:
--You take the elevator.
-->Take the elevator.
(Simply drop the subject you.)
If the command includes you and others, use the we form:
--We take our luggage.
-->Let's take the luggage.
(Drop the subject we and add let's [let us].)
Comparisons
Using Comparisons
There are two ways to make a comparison in English.
1.) Use more in front of the adjective.
--It's more exciting.
2.) Add -er to end of the adjective.
--A bus is cheaper than a taxi.
To complete a comparison, use than.
--I am older than my wife.
For most one-syllable adjectives, use -er: older, wiser, etc. For most two and three-syllable adjectives, use more: more recent. For two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, use -er. Note that the y is changed to i in words such as busy (busier) and pretty (prettier).
It is sometimes hard to decide whether to use more or -er in a comparison. In fact, there are many common adjectives that use either form (such as able, angry, cruel, friendly, polite, quiet, simple, etc.). Listening and practice with speaking the language will help you more than any number of rules. Finally, note the following irregular forms:
good-->better
little-->less
bad-->worse
far-->farther
Adverbs can also be used in comparisons. More is used with adverbs that end in -ly:
slowly-->more slowly
careful-->more carefully
Use -er with one-syllable adverbs: faster, harder, sooner, closer, etc.
Note these irregular forms:
well-->better
far-->farther
badly-->worse

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Conjunctions
Using Conjunctions
Here are some conjunctions that are frequently used in subordinate clauses:

TIME CAUSE & EFFECT
after because
before since
when now that
while as
as as/so long as
since inasmuch as
until so (that)
as soon as in order that
once
as/so long as
OPPOSITION CONDITION
even though if
although unless
though only if
whereas whether or not
while even if
providing (that)
provided (that)
incase (that)
in the event (that)
When a conjunction is used with a subordinate clause, the construction is called an adverbial clause.
Here are some adverbial clauses that relate to time:
--After we leave the bank, we'll spend the money.
--When they arrived, they sat down to dinner.
--We haven't seen her since she left.
And here are clauses that show cause and effect relationships:
--Since you didn't call, I made other plans.
--He went to bed, because he was tired.
Another way to show a cause and effect relationship is to use such... that and so... that:
--It was such a nice evening that they stayed up too late.
--The lemonade was so cold that she couldn't drink it.
Using When
Previously, you learned how to use when in questions:
--When are you leaving?
When can also be used in a dependent clause:
--I forgot the date when you arrived.
In the latter example, when is used to refer to a noun of time (i.e., a day, week, month, etc.)
In time clauses, it is also possible to use that or which preceded by a preposition:
--I forgot the date that you arrived.
--I forgot the date on which you arrived.
No preposition is needed with that.
Note how two sentences are combined using when:
--I'll always remember the day she was born. She was born then (on that day).
--I'll always remember the day when she was born.
Using Where
Earlier in this course, you learned how to use where in questions:
--Where are you going?
Where can also be used in a dependent clause:
--I see the house where they live.
In the latter example, where is used to refer to a place, such as a city, state, country, room, etc.
NOTE: In dependent clauses, where can be replaced with in which, which ... in, that ... in, or nothing at all:
--The building where they work is new.
--The building in which they work is new.
--The building, which they work in, is new.
--The building that they work in is new.
--The building they work in is new.
Contractions
Contractions
You will want to learn how to use contractions as soon as possible. Contractions are used constantly in informal English. Examples of contracted subject/verb forms are:
TO BE:
I am-->I'm
he is-->he's
we are-->we're
you are-->you're
they are-->they're
TO HAVE:
I have-->I've
we have-->we've
you have-->you've
they have-->they've
Contractions are frequently used with compound forms of verbs, especially the progressive or continuous form of the present tense (I'm going. / We're leaving.) and the present perfect forms (I've received the letter. / They've already left.)
A later lesson will deal with the compound forms of verbs in greater length.
Exclamations
Exclamations!
Most exclamations in English are preceded by what or how:
--What terrible weather!
--How awful!
What is used much more frequently than how in everyday language.
Exclamations can be as brief as one or two words (What a mess!) or as long as a sentence:
--What a way to end my vacation!
NOTE: Don't forget that what and how are most frequently used in questions:
--What did you say?
--How much does it cost?


Interrogatives
Asking Questions
In English, you can ask simple yes/no questions by either inverting the subject and verb or by using rising intonation:
--We can change money here.
(simple, declarative statement)
--Can we change money here?
(question with verb first)
--We can change money here?
(question with rising intonation)
NOTE: In the case of the simple present tense, it is necessary to use a form of the verb to do as an auxiliary in making a question:
--They like this bank.
-->Do they like this bank?
--You have a passport.
-->Do you have a passport?
Interrogatives in Dependent Clauses
In the dialogue for this chapter, you see:
--Do you know where I can cut off the water? (correct)
This construction can be troublesome for learners of English, because there is a tendency to make the dependent clause (where I can cut off...) a question as well:
--Do you know where can I cut off the water? (incorrect)
Both do you know and where can I cut off the water are legitimate questions when used separately. However, when combined in a single sentence the main clause (Do you know...) carries the full weight of the interrogative.
Here are some additional examples:
--Do you see it? Where is it?
-->Do you see where it is?
--Do you know when? When does he arrive?
-->Do you know when he arrives?

Information Questions
Many times you will want to ask a question that elicits information, instead of a simple yes/no answer. Information questions will begin with one of the following words:
WHO
WHERE
WHOM
WHAT
WHOSE
WHICH
WHY
HOW
WHEN
Who refers to people. It is used as the subject of the question.
Whom is used as the object of a verb or preposition.
Whose asks questions about possession.
Why is used to ask questions about reason.
When is used to ask questions about time.
Where is used to ask questions about place.
What can be used as the subject or object of a question. It refers to things.
Which is used instead of what when a question concerns choosing from a definite, known quantity or group.
How generally asks about manner. It is often used with much and many.
When a form of to be is the main verb in the simple present and simple past, it precedes the subject:
--Who is that man?
--Where is the airport?
--Where are the checks?
--What time is it?



Negative Questions
In a yes/no question in which the verb is negative, usually a contraction is used:
--Doesn't she live with you?
The other form, which is not contracted, is considered formal and is rarely used in everyday speech:
--Does she not live with you?
To form a negative question, make the auxiliary negative by adding not:
--Do they cash traveler's checks?
--> Don't they (Do they not) cash...?

HERE ARE SOME MORE EXAMPLES:
--Is Mr. Jones here?
-->Isn't Mr. Jones here?
--Are you coming?
-->Aren't you coming?

Tag Questions
Tag questions are questions that are added at the end of a sentence.
--Mary is here, isn't she?
--You like beer, don't you?
--They are leaving, aren't they?
--She doesn't drink coffee, does she?
--He has brown hair, doesn't he?
The subject of the tag question should be the same as the subject of the main verb. If the first part of the sentence is in the affirmative, then the tag question will be negative, and vice versa.

FIRST PART OF SENTENCE: TAG QUESTION:
affirmative negative
negative affirmative
In American English, a form of do is usually used when have is the main verb: They have change, don't they?

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Negation
Negatives
The word not is used with do to make a verb negative, as in I don't have any money (don't = do not). No is used as an adjective in front of a noun, as in I have no money. Both of these examples are acceptable ways of expressing the idea that you do not have something.
Note these contracted negative forms with do:
I don't
you don't
he, she doesn't
they don't
we don't
Here are some affirmative words and their negative forms in English:
AFFIRMATIVES
someone, anybody
something, anything
still
ever
either... or
NEGATIVES
no one, nobody
nothing
no longer
never
neither... nor

Avoid using more than one negative in a clause:
--I don't have any money.
NOT: I don't have no money.
--They don't see anybody.
NOT: They don't see nobody.
--I didn't do anything.
NOT: I didn't do nothing.

Nouns
Count And Noncount Nouns
Count nouns are nouns that can be counted (e.g., a book, two friends, three cars, etc.). A count noun may be preceded by a or an in the singular; it takes a final -s or -es in the plural.
Noncount (or mass) nouns refer to things that cannot be counted (e.g., money, rain, snow, butter, wind, air, clothing, etc.). Noncount nouns are not preceded by a or an and have no plural form.
COMMON NONCOUNT NOUNS

advice weather equipment
news water jewelry
information music postage
work money luggage
Some nouns can be both count and noncount nouns:
--We drank some wine. (Noncount)
--We ordered three wines. (Count)
(It is implicit that three different wines were ordered.)
Irregular Noun Plurals
When the final -y is preceded by a consonant, change the -y to -i and add -es:
baby-->babies
lady-->ladies
If a noun ends in -fe or -f, the ending is changed to -ves (except: beliefs, chiefs, roofs, staffs).
life-->lives
thief-->thieves
Add -es to nouns ending in -sh, -ch, -s, -z, and -x. (Exceptions: monarchs, stomachs.)
wish-->wishes
class-->classes
Both the -s and -es spellings are accepted for nouns ending in -o.
tomato-->tomatoes
hero-->heroes
The plural possessive form of these nouns is also irregular.
child-->children
foot-->feet
goose-->geese
man-->men
tooth-->teeth
The plural is the same as the singular for these nouns.
deer-->deer
fish-->fish
sheep-->sheep
species-->species
The final sound of these plurals is pronounced like the word sees.
crisis-->crises
thesis-->theses

Singular and Plural Forms of Nouns
All English nouns are either singular or plural. Most words form the plural by adding an -s to the end of the singular form:
month-->months
visa-->visas
airport-->airports
Other words, already referring to more than one person or thing, do not normally add an -s.
--the people, the fish, the mice, etc.

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Opposition Expression
Expressing Opposition
Here are some ways to show opposition when the result is the opposite of what you might expect:
1. ADVERB CLAUSES
even though
although
though
--Even though it was hot, we wore our coats.
2. CONJUNCTIONS
but ... anyway
but ... still
yet ... still
--It was cold, but we still went swimming.
3. PREPOSITIONS
despite
in spite of
--They went skiing despite the warm temperatures.
Here are words that show direct opposition:
1. ADVERB CLAUSES
whereas
while
--Paul is tall, whereas Richard is short.
--While Sue is industrious, Marie is lazy.
2. CONJUNCTION
but
--The travel agent is tired, but she is still working.
3. TRANSITIONS
however
on the other hand
--Carole is beautiful, however, she doesn't dress very well.
Whereas and while are used to show direct opposition; it does not make any difference which idea comes first and which second; the same rule applies for but / however / on the other hand.

Possessive Adjectives
Here are the possessive adjectives in English:
1st person, singular -- my
3rd person, singular -- his, her, its
1st person, plural -- our
2nd person, sing./pl. -- your
3rd person, plural -- their
In English, the gender and number of the possessor determines the form of the possessive adjective:
--I have a credit card. It's my credit card.
--She has some money. It's her money.
NOTE: Often the subject of the verb is not the person who owns the noun. Be careful about this. You must know the gender and number of the owner to be able to use possessive adjectives correctly:
--Are you buying his ticket or her ticket?
--I'm buying his ticket.

Possessive Pronouns
Here are the possessive pronouns in English:
1st person, singular -- mine
3rd person, singular -- his, hers, its
1st person, plural -- ours
2nd person, sing./pl. -- yours
3rd person, plural -- theirs
In English, the gender and number of the possessor determines the form of the possessive pronoun:
--I have a bicycle. It's mine.
--They have some bread. It's theirs.
NOTE: Often the subject of the verb is not the person who owns the noun. Be careful about this. You must know the gender and number of the owner to be able to use possessive pronouns correctly:
--Are you driving his car or hers?
--We're driving hers.
Possession
Possessives
To indicate possession in English, you will use either the preposition of or the -'s form. The latter is used much more frequently in informal English.
--This is the office of the attorney.
-->This is the attorney's office.
--Here is the desk of Mr. Young.
-->Here is Mr. Young's desk.
--I know the family of Mrs. Jones.
-->I know Mrs. Jones's family.
Note the change in word order when the -'s form is used. The owner is listed first, followed by the thing owned.


Negatives
The word not is used with do to make a verb negative, as in I don't have any money (don't = do not). No is used as an adjective in front of a noun, as in I have no money. Both of these examples are acceptable ways of expressing the idea that you do not have something.
Note these contracted negative forms with do:
I don't
you don't
he, she doesn't
they don't
we don't
Here are some affirmative words and their negative forms in English:
AFFIRMATIVES
someone, anybody
something, anything
still
ever
either... or
NEGATIVES
no one, nobody
nothing
no longer
never
neither... nor

Avoid using more than one negative in a clause:
--I don't have any money.
NOT: I don't have no money.
--They don't see anybody.
NOT: They don't see nobody.
--I didn't do anything.
NOT: I didn't do nothing.
Pronouns
Object Pronouns
Remember, a pronoun is used in place of a noun. Subject pronouns come in front of verbs, and object pronouns follow them:

me us
you you
him, her, it them
EXAMPLES:
--We see our friends.
-->We see them. (them takes the place of our friends)
--Call the waiter.
-->Call him. (i.e., the waiter)
--They like coffee.
-->They like it. (i.e., coffee)
Placement of Object Pronouns
When there is a sentence with more than one object pronoun, the rule is as follows:
1. PLACE THE DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUN DIRECTLY AFTER THE VERB
2. ANY INDIRECT OBJECT PRONOUN WILL COME LAST.
EXAMPLES:
--The lawyer gives you the envelope.
-->He gives it to you.
--They will send me some letters.
-->They'll send them to me.
--He's explaining the will to us.
-->He's explaining it to us.
Note that when you use a direct object pronoun, it comes earlier in the sentence than its noun equivalent:
--I give you a visa.
--> I give it to you.
The example below points to a problem with object word order in English. When a noun is the direct object, it normally comes last in the sentence (I wrote them a check.). When a pronoun is the direct object, the indirect object moves to the end of the sentence, and is preceded by to:
--She's leaving you her estate.
-->She's leaving it to you.

Reflexive Pronouns
The following are reflexive pronouns:

myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself, herself, itself themselves
A reflexive pronoun usually refers to the subject of a sentence:
--We looked at ourselves in the mirror.
(We and ourselves are the same persons.)
Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis:
--I washed my clothes myself.
Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns
To differentiate between things in English, use either:
this
that
these
those
Any of these demonstratives can be used with a noun or by itself. This (singular) and these (plural) refer to something or someone close at hand. That (singular) and those (plural) refer to something or someone a bit farther away.
EXAMPLES:
--Do you want this box or that box?
--I'd like some of that popcorn.
--Do you want these or those?
--This apartment is nicer than that one.

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Using Whose
Whose is used to show possession. It has the same meaning as other possessive adjectives such as his, hers, its, their, etc.
--There's the man whose house we bought.
--I have a book whose story is fascinating.
Whose modifies people but can also be used with things.
You should learn how to combine short sentences using whose:
--The woman is a talented artist. I saw her paintings.
-- The woman whose paintings I saw is a talented artist.

The Relative Pronouns Who/Which/That
Who, which and that are relative pronouns. They are usually used in dependent clauses introduced by a main clause:
--I tipped the waiter who (that) served us.
--We thanked the people who (that) helped us.
Note that in the above two examples who and that are substituted for one another. Even though who is more grammatically correct than that in reference to a person or persons, that is heard often in speech.
Who is used only for people. That can be used to refer to a person or thing. Which is used only for things:
--The car, which we rented, doesn't work
The Relative Pronouns Whom/Which/That
Follow the same rules for using who(m), which, and that, as you do with other relative pronouns. The only difference is that now these pronouns are functioning as objects:
--The movie that we saw last night was terrible.
--The movie, which we saw last night, was terrible.
For people, you will use either who or whom. Who is usually used instead of whom in colloquial speech, even though it is technically incorrect:
--The person who they saw was sick. (informal)
--The person whom they saw was sick. (formal)
--There's the driver who the police arrested. (informal)
--There's the driver whom the police arrested. (formal)

Special Verbs
Expectation and Should
In a previous section, you learned how should can be used to express advisability:
--The front desk clerk should give us a discount.
Another way should can be used is in expressions of expectation:
--They have been working hard. They should do well.
(In this example, should means will probably.)
The past form (should have) means that the speaker expected something that did not happen:
--I haven't heard anything from them. They should have called by now.
Expressing Necessity:
Must/Have To/Have Got To
Must and have to both express necessity:
--You must fill out this form.
--You have to pick up Mr. Roberts.
In some situations, must is more urgent or stronger than have to:
--You must be here for your appointment on time. I have a busy schedule today.
--You have to take another course next year.
The expression have got to is similar in meaning to must and have to but is reserved for spoken English:
--I have got to study more. (i.e., I must study more.)

Using May and Might
Two other important modal verbs are may and might. The two are used interchangeably in standard American English to express probability or possibility:
--You may be wrong.
--You might be wrong.
--The attorney might be late.
--The attorney may be late.
The past form is expressed as follows:
modal (may/might) + have + past participle
--I may/might have left my glasses in the restaurant.
NOTE: Must can also be used to express probability:
--The plane must be leaving now.

Progressive Forms of May and Might
THE PAST PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF MAY AND MIGHT ARE FORMED BY ADDING HAVE BEEN + THE -ING FORM OF THE MAIN VERB.
--I didn't see them at the hotel. They may have been having dinner.
--The mail didn't arrive on time. The mailman might have been having trouble with his car.
THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE FORMS OF MAY AND MIGHT ARE FORMED BY ADDING BE + THE -ING FORM OF THE MAIN VERB.
--We may be calling you in the morning.
--They might be visiting the U.S. this time next year.

NOTE: When must means necessity, the past form is had to. When it means probability, the past is must have + past participle.

The Past Form of Should
To form the past of should simply add have + past participle:
--I missed my plane this morning. I should have left earlier.
--I can't find a hotel room. I should have made a reservation.
The past form of should conveys the notion of a failure or omission. Note that the customary pronunciation of should have is should've or shouda. The negative form is should not have, pronounced in colloquial English as shouldn't've or shouldn't'a.

Paying For Things
When paying for things in the U.S., you will be quoted a price in dollars ($) and cents (¢). Sometimes the words dollar and cents are used, but more often you will hear:
--How much is it?
-- $29.95 (Twenty-nine ninety-five)
OR: (Twenty-nine dollars and ninety-five cents)
--What does it cost?
--$100.00*
(One hundred dollars)
*NOTE: Usually, when the price is an even amount -- dollars and no cents -- the word dollars is kept.

Sense Verbs (To Taste, Feel, Smell)
Verbs related to the senses (to taste, feel, and smell) are treated somewhat differently in terms of modifiers. Instead of an adverb, use the equivalent adjective to describe how something tastes, feels, or smells:
--These flowers smell good. (not well)
--I feel bad. (not badly, although you will hear this)
--My salad tastes good. (not well)
NOTE: Adjectives are used because attention is being drawn to the quality of the noun or pronoun subject, not to the verb. If you said She smells well instead of She smells good, you would be emphasizing her ability to smell something, not how she smells.
Using Could
Could is used in two ways in English:
1.) Past ability:
--I can speak English now. I couldn't when I was a child.
2.) Polite questions:
--Could I borrow your car?
--Could you speak slower?
--Could we check out later?
Note that could is the simple past form of the verb can. The negative form of it is couldn't (could not).
Using Should
One of the meanings of the modal auxiliary should is advisability:
--You should leave right now.
--They should fill out this form.
You can also express the same idea using either ought to or had better:
--You ought to leave right now.
(You had better leave....)
--They ought to fill out this form.
(They had better fill out....)
Should and ought to both mean that something is a good idea. Had better is usually stronger, implying a warning of bad consequences.
The negative of should is shouldn't. Ought to is not usually used in the negative. Often you will hear people pronounce ought to as otta.

Using Would
The modal auxiliary would is used in three different cons:
1. EXPRESSING PREFERENCE:
--I would rather visit Los Angeles. (I'd rather... )
(Would rather means prefer.)
2. EXPRESSING REPEATED ACTION IN THE PAST:
--When she was alive, Aunt Stephanie would visit the West Coast.
(Would is used with regularly repeated actions in the past.)
3. POLITE REQUESTS
--I would appreciate hearing from you soon.
(Would is frequently used with polite requests.)
When used to express a repeated action in the past, would often takes the place of used to:
--When they were students, they would go skiing every winter.
ALSO:
--When they were students, they used to go skiing every winter.
However, when used to refers to a situation that existed (but was not necessarily repeated) in the past, would may not serve as a replacement:
--Aunt Stephanie used to live in Chicago.
NOT:
--Aunt Stephanie would live in Chicago.
Would can also be used in conditional sentences:
--If I had more time, I would read the instructions carefully.

Verbs Followed by Infinitives
Here is list of common verbs that are usually followed immediately by an infinitive:

hope offer seem
agree forget appear
remember expect want
promise decide need
ask refuse
Examples:
--She hopes to leave soon.
--They want to buy a car.
Verbs that are followed by a pronoun (or noun) + infinitive are:

tell warn force
remind permit order
advise allow expect
encourage require want
NOTE: The negative form of a verb followed by an infinitive follows:
--He asked them not to smoke.
(Note that the not comes before the infinitive.)