Syyntax 334 ... معلومات مهمة جدا جدا

[ماجد الجابري]

 Syntactic Analysis is the study of how sentences are formed.
 Syntactic Analysis is the study of how a specific language combines words to form sentences.
 Morphology is the study of how words are formed.
 The study of Syntax involves two related tasks:
 1- Breaking down the sentence into its components parts (i.g. constituents)
 2- Assigning some grammatical label to each constituent .
 Sentence  Clause  Phrase  Word  Morpheme
 Node is the point in a tree diagram, which carries a category label (e.g. S, NP, VP, N …etc)
 Branch: e.g. S2, S3, and Coord are branches of S1
 Terminal Node is one at the bottom of the tree (e.g. Det, N,V,PRN )
 Terminal nodes are immediately above words (i.e. lexical items)
 Non terminal Node is one which is not at the bottom of the tree
 Mother : (e.g. S1 is the mother of S2 and S3)
 Daughter : (e.g. S2, and S3, are daughters of S1)
 Sister (e.g. S2, and S3 are sisters)
 Constituency is a syntactic unit, which combines with other components to form a larger structure such as a phrase , a clause or a sentence .
 Types of constituents : Words , phrases , clauses .
 How to test constituents :
 1- Clefting : is a process by which a constituent can be given more emphasis by placing it at the beginning of the sentence and surrounding it by the words (it is , was … that )
 2- Pseudo-clefting is a process that is similar to clefting but it involves the use the word what to form a sentence .
 3- Passivisation is a process by which a constituent undergoes movement from the object position to the subject position .
 4- Substitution : Under coordination a constituent can be substituted by a single word.
 5- Fronting: a constituent may be fronted as a unit .
 Linguistic competence is the linguistic knowledge possessed by native speakers of a language .
 Word classes in English are : Nouns ,Verbs ,Adjectives , Adverbs , Prepositions, Pronouns , Determiners , Conjuctions.
 The noun is the head of the noun phrase .
 The head is the central element (non-omissible) of the phrase .
 NP .. determiners  pre-modifiers  Noun
 A Determiner can be :
 A definite article such as the .
 An indefinite article such as a and an.
 A possessor pronoun such as his , her , their , our , my , your and its.
 A demonstrative pronoun such as this, that , these and those.
 A numeral such as one, Two, three
 An item like some , any , each , every , all , both , half , many , much , which , and whose.

 Determiners may be :
 Predeterminers (e.g. half, all, both)
 Central determiners (the , a , my , that , this)
 Postdeterminers ( two , three )
 Determiners .. predeterminers  central determiners  postdeterminers
 Adjectives are modifiers because they modify the head noun .
 Elements that follow the nouns are called post-modifiers .
 Subject ( I, you, he , she , it , we , you , they )
 Object ( me , you , him , her , it , us , you , them )
 Possessive Determiner ( my , your , his , her , its , our , your , their )
 Possessive Pronoun ( mine , yours , his , hers , its , ours , yours , theirs )
 Reflexive ( myself , yourself , himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves , themselves )
 Predicate : might be a single word or a group of words
 Agreement : In many languages , verbs agree with their subjects .
 Modal auxiliaries or modals : e.g. will , would , can could , may might , shall , must )
 Primary auxiliaries : are used to indicate the aspect and the voice of the sentence , they can also be used as main verbs .
 Aspect : A term typically used to denote the duration of the activity described by a verb .
 Voice : A term refers to whether a sentence or a clause is ACTIVE or PASSIVE .
 Active voice : the thieves stole the jewels Passive voice : the jewels were stolen by the thieves
 Intransitive verb : the boy laughed  takes no complement
 Copula verb : the story was interesting  requires Adjp as its complement
 Monotransitive verb : Ahmad finished the course  takes NP as its complement
 Ditransitive verb : He told the girl an interesting story  requires two complements
 Complex transitive verb : He called him stupid  requires two complements
 Adjuncts : Adjuncts are those elements whose presence is syntactically optional ( The boy put the cup on the table last night )
 Some elements can be both adverbs and adjectives such as early , fast , hard , and late
 An adjective may be preceded by an adverb phrase which specifies it .
 An adjective may also be followed by a PP or an S which serves as a complement
 Adjective phrases may occur as a Premodifier inside a NP or as predictative complement inside VP
 An adverb may be preceded by another adverb which specifies it .
 An averb phrases may occur inside a VP or an Adjp
 Prepositions can be preceded by some element which are called specifiers like (right on the wall, straight through the wall .
 Conjunctions : a- Coordinators like and , or , but , for. B- subordinators
 A subordinator is referred to as complementizer because it appear in COMP position .
 Coordinators appear between two clauses whereas subordinators are parts of the subordinate clauses .

 Declarative sentences : used to give information.
 Interrogative sentences : to ask for information .
 Declarative sentences :
 1- Simple sentences : are those that normally contain on statement .(Ahmad works in the airport)
 2- Compound sentences : are those which contain two or more clauses of equal status joined by a coordinator ( The snake killed the rat and it swallowed it )
 3- Complex sentences : are those which contain two or more clauses that are not equally balanced (The policeman ask me what I had seen there ) ( The snake killed the rat before it swallowed it )
 A clause is a group of words that contain a verb .
 A clause may be a part of a sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself .
 A main clauses is the one that makes sense on its own .
 A subordinate clause depends on the main clause for its meaning . its cannot stand alone.
 Elements such as that , whether , if and for , etc are called complementizers
 Finite verb phrases are those which are marked for tense (past or present) (John believe the prisoner to be innocent)
 Finite clause is a clause that contains an auxiliary or nonauxiliary verb and have a nominative subject like I, we , he , she , they
 Nonfinite forms include : a Infinitive forms (John believe the prisoner to be innocent)
 Grammatical categories can be : Noun , verbs , adjectives , adverbs , prepositions , complementizers
 Grammatical functions : Subjects , specifiers , predicate , direct object , indirect object , head , adjunct, complements .
 Subject : is the function related to the constituent introducing the sentence .(Mary put the money in a box)
 Predicate : is the part of a sentence or clause that contains a verb and states something about the subject.
 Adjunct is a word or phrase that constitutes an optional element or is considered of secondary importance in a sentence
 Sentence adjuncts :
 1-Adverbs that specify speaker’s attitude toward the rest of the sentence (unfortunately, certainly, in my view , in fact)
 2- Items which serve to connect sentences in a text (yet, moreover, however, nevertheless)
 Grammatical functions in VP :
 1. Predicative complement : ascribes some property to the subject . \ the verb that selects such a complement belong to the class of copulas (be, look, seem etc)
 predicative complement is obligatory after the verb
 2. Direct object : is the grammatical function related to the complement of monotransitive, ditransitive , and transitive verbs .
 Direct object is obligatorily selected by the verb.
 3. Indirect object : is a the grammatical function related to the complement of ditransitive verbs.
 Indirect objects are obligatorily selected by the verb .
 4. Adverbial complement with intransitive: its related to the complement of intransitive verbs .
 It gives information concerning the place , manner, time, duration .
 It is obligatorily selected by the verb .
 5. Adverbial complement with transitive : it is related to the complement of transitive verbs
 Gives information concerning location and manner .
 It is obligatorily selected by the verb
 6. Complex function : it is related to the complement of complex transitive verbs .
 - The constituents following the direct object has both predicative complement function and adverbial complement function .
 Complements are necessary for the grammaticality of the sentence but not adjuncts .
 Verb phrases may have adverbial adjunct or predicative adjunct .
 General representation for all types of phrases : Specifier – head – complement – Modifier\Adjunct .
 The basic sentence patterns are called underlying structure or deep structure .
 Questions formation involves three transformational operations :
 1 Subject – Auxiliary inversion : a- basic sentence patterns (deep structure) b- yes\no question (surface structure).
 2 Do-insertion “in case where the sentence has no auxiliary” a- basic sentence patterns (deep structure) b- yes\no question (surface structure)
 3 Wh-movement : a- basic sentence patterns (deep structure) b- Wh-question (surface structure)
 After movement , a gap is left behind in the original position .
 The extracted wh-expression is called a filler because it fills the gap.
 Sometimes an index is used to indicate movement .
 The extracted wh-expression is also called the binder or the wh-operator because it binds the element in the gap position .
 Prepositional phrases :
 In wh-movement , if a preposition is moved with the wh-word , then this preposition is said to be pied-piped .
 Sometimes, pied-piping can be obligatory in relative clauses . and optional with pps.
 but if a preposition moved to the initial position and the preposition is left behind is said to be stranded
 One of the most important features of human languages is that they allow unlimited number of embedded sentences inside each other .
 Wh-expression does not involve a direct movement from its original position to the initial position . in fact, it involves multiple movements with intermediate landing sites .
 Relative clauses : ( the man whom john met) (the book which john wrote) this wh-word is called a relative pronoun .


 Types of relative clauses :
 1- Restrictive relative clauses : A restrictive relative clause is the one which provides information that is essential for the identification of the referent .
 2- Nonrestrictive relative clauses : relative clause is the one which provides additional information about the referent .
 A- Restrictive relatives : The man whom you met yesterday is a professor
 B- Non-restrictive relatives : Ahmad who studies physics lives in Jeddah
 Non-restrictive relative clauses can be deleted without affecting the meaning of the sentence .
 3- Free relative clauses : clause are also called headless relative clauses because they do not have a head noun to modify .
 A- Ordinary relative clauses : (the book which you like)
 B- Free relative clauses : (what \ whatever you like)
 Adverbial relative clause are those which are introduced by wh-expressions like (where, when , why)
 4- Reduced relative clause (the last man to talk in such situation is your father).
 Appositive clauses : look like that- relative clauses but they are not relative .
 A- Appositive clauses : (the news that john left his wife came as a shock to us all) (the rumour that Mary is pregnant annoyed her very much)
 Ordinary relative clauses : (the news that john told his wife gave her a shock) (the rumour that Mary spread in the class was terrible )
 Range of relativization :
 1- Subject relativization : where the modified noun is interpreted as the subject of the verb inside the relative clause.
 2- Direct object relativization : where the modified noun is interpreted as the direct object of the verb inside the relative clause
 3- Indirect object relativization : where the modified noun is interpreted as the indirect object of the verb inside the relative clause .
 4- Object of a preposition : where the modified noun is interpreted as the object of the preposition inside the relative clause .
 5- Possessor relativization where the modified noun is interpreted as the possessor .

[ماجد الجابري]

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